Sanskrt (jezik)
sanskrt | |
---|---|
संस्कृतम् | |
Izgovor | /ˈsanskrt/ |
Govori se u | Indija |
Broj govornika | Indija: 14.135 Indijaca se izjasnilo da je sanskrt njihov maternji jezik u popisu iz 2001.[1] Nepal: 1,669 Nepalaca po popisu iz 2011. koristi sanskrt kao svoj maternji jezik.[2] (nedostaje datum) |
devanagari[3] Isto tako se piše u raznim Brahmijskim pismima.[4] | |
Zvanični status | |
Službeni jezik u | Utarahand |
Jezički kodovi | |
ISO 639-1 | sa |
ISO 639-2 | san |
ISO 639-3 | san |
Sanskrt ili sanskrit (संस्कृतम [saṃskṛtam] — „sastavljen“, „spravljen“; od reči sam — „sa“ i kṛta — „pravljen“), klasični je jezik Indije i Nepala[5] sa dokumentovanom istorijom od oko 3.500 godina.[6][7][8] On je liturgijski jezik u hinduizmu, budizmu i džainizmu. Kao rezultat prenošenja hinduističke i budističke kulture u jugoistočnu Aziju i delove centralne Azije, on je isto tako bio i jezik visoke kulture u nekim od ovih regiona u ranom srednjovekovnom dobu.[9][10] Ovaj jezik je bio u svakodnevnoj upotrebi u periodu od 2. milenijuma p. n. e. do 600. p. n. e. (Vedijski sanskrt[11]), nakon čega su iz njega nastali srednje indoarijski jezici. Sanskrt je klasični jezik indijske književnosti. U Aziji ima status sličan latinskom i grčkom jeziku u Evropi. Sveti spisi hinduizma, kao i mahajana i vađrajana budizma sastavljeni su na sanskrtu.[12]
Sanskrt je prilično sličan paliju, jeziku teravada budizma. U vreme Bude (5. vek p. n. e.), sanskrtom se govorilo samo na dvorovima i među sveštenstvom, dok je pali bio narodni govor.[12] Pali, jezik teravada kanona, bio je jedan od onih dijalekata kojim se govorilo u Avanti provinciji, ali ne i jezik na kojem je Buda podučavao.[13] Zbog toga se upotrebi pali terminologije ne daje prioritet u odnosu na budistički sanskrt, vrstu sanskrta koja sadrži mnogo prakrtskih reči (prakrt, narodni jezik, za razliku od sanskrta).[13] U Indiji sanskrt danas predstavlja jedan od službenih jezika. Iako ga mnogi smatraju mrtvim jezikom, još uvek se uči i koristi kao svakodnevni govor u nekim indijskim zajednicama.
Sanskrt je stari indoarijski jezik.[6] Kao jedan od najstrijih dokumentovanih članova indoevropske familije jezika,[14][note 1][note 2] sanskrt ima prominentnu poziciju u indoevropskim studijama.[17] On je srodan sa grčkim i latinskim,[6] kao i hetskim, luviskim, starim avestanskim i mnogim drugim izumrlim jezicima od istorijskog značaja u Evropi, zapadnoj Aziji i centralnoj Aziji. Njegovo lingvističko poreklo se može slediti do proto-indoarijskih, proto-indoiranskih i proto-indoevropskih jezika.[18]
Sanskrt je moguće pratiti do 2. milenijuma p. n. e. u formi poznatoj kao vedski sanskrt, sa Rgvedama kao najranijim sačuvanim tekstom. Znatno više standardizovan oblik (sa izvesnim pojednostavljenjima) koji se naziva klasičnim sanskrtom pojavio se sredinom prvog milenijuma p. n. e. sa Aṣṭādhyāyī traktatom Paninija.[6] Sanskrt, mada ne nužno klasični sanskrt, je jezički koren mnogih prakrtskih jezika.[19] Primeri obuhvataju brojne moderne izvedene severno-indijske potkontinentalne jezike, kao što su hindi, marati, bengalski, pandžabi i nepalski.[20][21][22]
Telo sanskrtske literature obuhvata bogatu tradiciju filozofskih i religioznih tekstova, kao i poeziju, muziku, dramu, naučne, tehničke i druge tekstove. U drevnoj eri, sanskrtske kompozicije su bile oralno prenošene metodom memorisanja izuzetne složenosti, rigoroznosti i vernosti.[23][24] Najstariji poznati natpisi na sanskrtu su iz prvog veka p. n. e, kao što je nekoliko otkrivenih u Ajodiji i Hatibadi Gosandi.[25][note 3] Sanskrtski tekstovi datirani na prvi milenijum ove ere su napisani u Brahmi pismu, Nagari pismu, istorijskim južno indijskim pismima i njihovim derivativnim pismima.[29][30][31] Sanskrt je jedan od 22 jezika navedenih u osmom rasporedu ustava Indije. On se i dalje široko koristi kao ceremonijalni i ritualni jezik u hinduizmu i delu budističke prakse, kao što su himne i mantre.
Etimologija i nomenklatura[uredi | uredi izvor]
Sanskrt glagolski pridev sáṃskṛta- je složena reč koja se sastoji od sams (zajedno, dobro, valjano, perfektno) i krta- (napravljen, formiran, rad).[32][33] To označava delo koje je „dobro pripremljeno, čisto i savršeno, polirano, sveto”.[34][35][36] Prema Bidermanu, savršenstvo koje se kontekstualno spominje u etimološkom korenu ove reči je njen tonalni kvalitet, pre nego semantika. Zvučni i oralni prenos su bili visoko cenjeni kvalitet u drevnoj Indiji, a njihovi mudraci su prečišćavali abecedu, strukturu reči i strogu gramatiku jezika u „kolekciju zvukova, neku vrstu uzvišenog muzičkog kalupa”, kaže Biderman, kao integralni jezik koji su oni zvali Sanskrt.[33] Od kasnog Vedskog perioda na dalje, navode Anet Vilke i Oliver Moebus, rezonantni zvuk i njegove muzičke osnove privukli su „izuzetno veliku količinu lingvističke, filozofske i verske literature” u Indiji. Zvuk je vizualizovan kao „prožimajući svu kreaciju”, još jednu reprezentaciju samog sveta, „misteriozni magnum” hinduističke misli. Potraga za savršenošću u razmišljanju i spasenju bila je jedna od dimenzija svetog zvuka, i zajednička nit za povezivanje svih ideja i inspiracija postala je potraga za onim što su drevni Indijci smatrali savršenim jezikom, „fonocentričnim epistemom” sanskrta.[37][38]
Sanskrt kao jezik se takmičio sa brojnim manje preciznim domaćim indijskim jezicima zvanim prakrtni jezici (prākṛta-). Termin prakrta doslovno znači „originalan, prirodan, normalan, neizveštačen”, navodi Franklin Sautvort.[39] Odnos između prakrta i sanskrta se može dokučiti iz indijski tekstova iz prvog milenijuma ove ere. Patandžali je potvrdio da je prakrt prvi jezik, koji instinktivno prihvata svako dete sa svim nesavršenostima i da kasnije dovodi do interpretacionih problema i nesporazuma. Pročišćavajuća struktura sanskrtskog jezika uklanja ove nesavršenosti. Rani sanskrtski gramatičar Dandin tvrdi, na primer, da je mnogo toga u prakritskim jezicima etimološki ukorenjeno na sanskrtu, ali dolazi do „gubitka zvukova” i korupcija koje proizlaze iz „zanemarivanja gramatike”. Dandin je napomenuo i da postoje reči i zbunjujuće strukture u prakritu koje su široko korištene nezavisno od sanskrta. Ovo gledište se nalazi u pisanju Barata Munija, autora drevnog teksta „Natjasastra”. Rani đainistički učenjak Namisadu je potvrdio razliku, ali se nije složio da je jezik prakrta korupcija sanskrtta. Namisadu je smatrao da je prakrtski jezik bio purvam (da je došao ranije), dok je sanskrt bio rafinirana verzija prakritaa stvorena putem „prečišćavanja gramatike”.[40]
Poreklo[uredi | uredi izvor]
Pretpostavlja se da je ovaj jezik stigao je Indiju sa severozapada potkontinenta nešto pre 1500. godine p. n. e., zajedno sa ekspanzijom nomadskog naroda u istoriji poznatog kao Arijevci.[41] O njihovoj prapostojbini, jeziku i etničkim karakteristikama u nauci se vode polemike, no, verovatno potiču iz široke oblasti koja je obuhvatala današnju istočnu Tursku, južnu Rusiju i severni Iran i da su se u jednom trenutku podelili u dve velike migracione grupe. Jedna je krenula na zapad, ka Evropi, a druga na istok, ka indijskom potkontinentu. Istočna grupa govorila je indo-iranskim jezikom, od kojeg su se kasnije razvili vedski i sanskrt, kao književni jezici, i razni narodni jezici Indije. Njegov kasniji izdanak je i pali, jezik budističkog kanona.[41]
Fonologija[uredi | uredi izvor]
Klasični sanskrt ima 48 glasova. Ne računajući alofone, sanskrt ima 35 fonema.
Sanskrt je razvio i sopstveno pismo, devanagari.[12]
Primeri sličnosti[uredi | uredi izvor]
Primeri sličnosti sanskrta sa srpskim jezikom:
srpski | sanskrt | engleski | latinski |
---|---|---|---|
sto | śatá | hundred | centum |
mati | mā́tṛ | mother | mater |
brat | bhrā́tṛ | brother | frater |
biti/jeste | √bhū/ásti | be/is | fui/est |
dva | dvá | two | duo |
višnji (najviši) | viṣṇu | highest | summus |
oganj | agní | fire | ignis |
bela | bhāla | white | — |
dete | √dhe | child | — |
div | div | giant | — |
dan | diná | day | dies |
dom | dáma | home | domus |
rosa | раса | dew | ??? |
Treba znati da "viṣṇu" i "agní" spadaju u vrhovna božanstva u hinduizmu.
Sličnost sa srpskim jezikom postoji na svim nivoima, od glasova, korenskih reči do gramatike.[42]
Vidi još[uredi | uredi izvor]
Napomene[uredi | uredi izvor]
- ^ Stari hetski jazik i mikenski grčki, zajedno sa sanskrtom, su najstariji dokumentovani indoevropski jezici; među njima, stari hetski je datiran kao najstariji.[15][16]
- ^ Najstariji dokumentovani južnoazijski jezik nije sanskrt. To je jezik evidentiran nedešifrovanim Harapanskim pismom iz trećeg milenijuma p. n. e.[15]
- ^ More numerous inscribed Sanskrit records in Brahmi have been found near Mathura and elsewhere, but these are from the 1st century CE onwards.[26] Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist pilgrim Faxian who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE.[27][28]
Reference[uredi | uredi izvor]
- ^ „Comparative speaker's strength of scheduled languages − 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001”. Census of India, 2001. Office of the Registrar and Census Commissioner, India. Arhivirano iz originala 11. 4. 2009. g. Pristupljeno 31. 12. 2009.
- ^ „Population Monograph of Nepal” (PDF). Arhivirano iz originala (PDF) 18. 09. 2017. g. Pristupljeno 03. 09. 2017.
- ^ Rosenhouse & Kowner 2013, str. 210
- ^ Thompson, Irene (23. 12. 2016). „Sanskrit”.
- ^ Keown, Damien; Prebish, Charles S. (2013). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Taylor & Francis. str. 15. ISBN 978-1-136-98595-9.; Quote: "Sanskrit served as the lingua franca of ancient India, just as Latin did in medieval Europe"
- ^ a b v g Cardona, George (2012). Sanskrit Language. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^ Tim Murray 2007, str. v–vi, 1–18, 31–32, 115–116.
- ^ Harold G. Coward 1990, str. 3–12, 36–47, 111–112, Note: Sanskrit was both a literary and spoken language in ancient India..
- ^ Howard, Michael C. (2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel. McFarland. str. 21. ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2., Quote: "Sanskrit was another important lingua franca in the ancient world that was widely used in South Asia and in the context of Hindu and Buddhist religions in neighboring areas as well. (...) The spread of South Asian cultural influence to Southeast Asia, Central Asia and East Asia meant that Sanskrit was also used in these areas, especially in a religious context and political elites."
- ^ Pollock, Sheldon (2006). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. str. 14. ISBN 978-0-520-24500-6., Quote: "Once Sanskrit emerged from the sacerdotal environment ... it became the sole medium by which ruling elites expressed their power ... Sanskrit probably never functioned as an everyday medium of communication anywhere in the cosmopolis—not in South Asia itself, let alone Southeast Asia ... The work Sanskrit did do ... was directed above all toward articulating a form of ... politics ... as celebration of aesthetic power."
- ^ Reinöhl, Uta (2016). Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. str. xiv, 1—16. ISBN 978-0-19-873666-0.
- ^ a b v Budizam od A do Ž
- ^ a b Elijade 1996, str. 40–59.
- ^ Philipp Strazny 2013, str. 500.
- ^ a b Woodard, Roger D. (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. str. 1—2. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1., Quote: "The earliest form of this 'oldest' language, Sanskrit, is the one found in the ancient Brahmanic text called the Rigveda, composed c. 1500 BC. The date makes Sanskrit one of the three earliest of the well-documented languages of the Indo-European family - the other two being Old Hittite and Myceanaean Greek - and, in keeping with its early appearance, Sanskrit has been a cornerstone in the reconstruction of the parent language of the Indo-European family - Proto-Indo-European."
- ^ Hult 1991, str. 26.
- ^ Benware 1974, str. 25–27.
- ^ Thomas Burrow 2001, str. v & ch. 1.
- ^ Woolner, Alfred C. (1986). Introduction to Prakrit. Motilal Banarsidass. str. 3—4. ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9., Quote:"If in 'Sanskrit' we include the Vedic language and all dialects of the Old Indian period, then it is true to say that all the Prakrits are derived from Sanskrit. If on the other hand 'Sanskrit' is used more strictly of the Panini-Patanjali language or 'Classical Sanskrit,' then it is untrue to say that any Prakrit is derived from Sanskrit, except that Sauraseni, the Midland Prakrit, is derived from the Old Indian dialect of the Madhyadesa on which Classical Sanskrit was mainly based."
- ^ Bright, William (2014). American Indian Linguistics and Literature. Walter De Gruyter. str. 16—17. ISBN 978-3-11-086311-6.
- ^ Groff, Cynthia (2017). The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills. Palgrave Macmillan UK. str. 183—185. ISBN 978-1-137-51961-0.
- ^ Pandey, Iswari P. (2015). South Asian in the Mid-South: Migrations of Literacies. University of Pittsburgh Press. str. 85—86. ISBN 978-0-8229-8102-2.
- ^ Staal 1986.
- ^ Filliozat 2004, str. 360–375.
- ^ Salomon 1998, str. 86–87. sfn greška: više ciljeva (3×): CITEREFSalomon1998 (help)
- ^ Salomon 1998, str. 87–89. sfn greška: više ciljeva (3×): CITEREFSalomon1998 (help)
- ^ Arvon, Henri. Faxian: Chinese Buddhist Monk. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^ Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. str. 504. ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
- ^ Grünendahl, Reinhold (2001). South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints: Grantha Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, Nandinagari. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. str. xiii—xxii. ISBN 978-3-447-04504-9.
- ^ Jain, Dhanesh; Cardona, George (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. str. 51—52. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
- ^ Pārameśvaratantra (MS Add.1049.1) with images Arhivirano 2016-03-08 na sajtu Wayback Machine, Puṣkarapārameśvaratantra, University of Cambridge (2015), Quote: "One of the oldest known dated Sanskrit manuscripts from South Asia, this specimen transmits a substantial portion of the Pārameśvaratantra, a scripture of the Śaiva Siddhānta, one of the Tantric theological schools that taught the worship of Śiva as "Supreme Lord" (the literal meaning of Parameśvara). [...] According to the colophon, it was copied in the year 252, which some scholars judge to be of the era established by the Nepalese king Aṃśuvarman (also known as Mānadeva), therefore corresponding to 828 CE." - a Palm Leaf manuscript at the Cambridge University Library in Late Gupta in black ink, MS Add.1049.1
- ^ Angus Stevenson & Maurice Waite 2011, стр. 1275
- ^ а б Shlomo Biderman 2008, стр. 90.
- ^ Will Durant 1963, стр. 406.
- ^ Sir Monier Monier-Williams (2005). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Motilal Banarsidass. стр. 1120. ISBN 978-81-208-3105-6.
- ^ Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, стр. 1–2.
- ^ Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011). Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism. Walter de Gruyter. стр. 62—66with footnotes. ISBN 978-3-11-024003-0.
- ^ Guy L. Beck 2006, стр. 117–123.
- ^ Southworth, Franklin (2004). Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia. Routledge. стр. 45. ISBN 978-1-134-31777-6.
- ^ Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (2017). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook. Walter De Gruyter. стр. 318—320. ISBN 978-3-11-026128-8.
- ^ а б Kovačević 2014, стр. 10.
- ^ Кнежевић Стевановић, Данијела (31. 1. 2020). „Санскрт као духовна и језичка блискост два народа”. Политика. Приступљено 2. 2. 2020.
Литература[uredi | uredi izvor]
- Arvon, Henri. Faxian: Chinese Buddhist Monk. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- Pandey, Iswari P. (2015). South Asian in the Mid-South: Migrations of Literacies. University of Pittsburgh Press. стр. 85—86. ISBN 978-0-8229-8102-2.
- Groff, Cynthia (2017). The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills. Palgrave Macmillan UK. стр. 183—185. ISBN 978-1-137-51961-0.
- Bright, William (2014). American Indian Linguistics and Literature. Walter De Gruyter. стр. 16—17. ISBN 978-3-11-086311-6.
- Woolner, Alfred C. (1986). Introduction to Prakrit. Motilal Banarsidass. стр. 3—4. ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9.
- Cardona, George (2012). Sanskrit Language. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- Hult, Arne (1991). On the Development of the Present Active Participle in Bulgarian. Institutum Slavicum Universitatis Gothoburgensis. ISBN 978-91-86094-11-9.
- Woodard, Roger D. (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. стр. 1—2. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1.
- Reinöhl, Uta (2016). Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. стр. xiv, 1—16. ISBN 978-0-19-873666-0.
- Pollock, Sheldon (2006). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. стр. 14. ISBN 978-0-520-24500-6.
- Howard, Michael C. (2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel. McFarland. стр. 21. ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2.
- Keown, Damien; Prebish, Charles S. (2013). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Taylor & Francis. стр. 15. ISBN 978-1-136-98595-9.
- Rosenhouse, Judith; Kowner, Rotem (2013). Globally Speaking: Motives for Adopting English Vocabulary in Other Languages. Multilingual Matters. стр. 210. ISBN 978-1-78309-153-9.
- Елијаде, Мирча (1996). Водич кроз светске религије. Београд: Народна књига.
- Kovačević, Branislav (2014). Ovako sam čuo: Budino učenje na osnovu izvora u Pali kanonu. Novi Sad–Beograd.
- Maurer, Walter (2001). The Sanskrit language: an introductory grammar and reader. Surrey, England: Curzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-1382-0.
- H. W. Bailey (1955). „Buddhist Sanskrit”. The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Cambridge University Press (1/2): 13—24. JSTOR 25581326.
- Banerji, Sures (1989). A companion to Sanskrit literature: spanning a period of over three thousand years, containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, legends, and several appendices. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2.
- Beck, Guy L. (1995). Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1261-1.
- Beck, Guy L. (2006). Sacred Sound: Experiencing Music in World Religions. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-421-8.
- Robert S.P. Beekes (2011). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An introduction (2nd изд.). John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-8500-3.
- Benware, Wilbur (1974). The Study of Indo-European Vocalism in the 19th Century: From the Beginnings to Whitney and Scherer: A Critical-Historical Account. Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-0894-1.
- Biderman, Shlomo (2008). Crossing Horizons: World, Self, and Language in Indian and Western Thought. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51159-9.
- Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-74324-8.
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993). „Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit: The Original Language in "Aspects of Buddhist Sanskrit: Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Language of Sanskrit Buddhist Texts"”. University of Lausanne, Switzerland; Vidyapith Varanasi, India: 396—423.
- Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513777-4.
- Bryant, Edwin Francis; Patton, Laurie L. (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-1463-6.
- Burrow, Thomas (2001). The Sanskrit Language. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1767-8.
- Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
- Cardona, George (2012). Sanskrit Language. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- Clackson, James (2007). Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-46734-6.
- Coulson, Michael (1992). Sanskrit : an introduction to the classical language, 2nd Edition as revised by Richard Gombrich and James Benson. Random House. ISBN 978-0-340-56867-5. OCLC 26550827.
- Coulson, Michael; Gombrich, Richard; Benson, James (2011). Complete Sanskrit: A Teach Yourself Guide. Mcgraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-175266-4.
- Coward, Harold G. (1990). The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume 5 (Editor: Karl Potter). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-81-208-0426-5.
- Suniti Kumar Chatterji (1957). „Indianism and Sanskrit”. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 38 (1/2): 1—33. JSTOR 44082791.
- Daniels, Peter T. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
- Deshpande, Madhav (2011). „Efforts to Vernacularize Sanskrit: Degree of Success and Failure”. Ур.: Joshua Fishman, Ofelia Garcia. Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts. 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983799-1.
- Durant, Will (1963). Our oriental heritage. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1567310122.
- Eltschinger, Vincent (2017). „Why Did the Buddhists Adopt Sanskrit?”. Open Linguistics. 3 (1). ISSN 2300-9969. doi:10.1515/opli-2017-0015.
- Filliozat, J. (1955). „Sanskrit as Language of Communication”. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 36 (3/4): 179—189. JSTOR 44082954.
- Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004). „Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature”. Ур.: Chemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. str. 360—375. ISBN 978-1-4020-2320-0.[mrtva veza]
- Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat (2000). The Sanskrit Language: An Overview: History and Structure, Linguistic and Philosophical Representations, Uses and Users. Indica. ISBN 978-81-86569-17-7.
- Fortson, Benjamin W., IV (2011). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5968-8.
- Goldman, Robert P.; Sally J Sutherland Goldman (2002). Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language. Center for South Asia Studies, University of California Press.
- Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, Vjaceslav V. (2010). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-081503-0.
- Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; V. V. Ivanov (1990). „The Early History of Indo-European Languages”. Scientific American. Nature America. 262 (3): 110—117. JSTOR 24996796.
- Goody, Jack (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33794-6.
- Grünendahl, Reinhold (2001). South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints: Grantha Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, Nandinagari. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04504-9.
- Houben, Jan (1996). Ideology and status of Sanskrit: contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10613-0.
- Hanneder, J. (2002). „On "The Death of Sanskrit"”. Indo-Iranian Journal. Brill Academic Publishers. 45 (4): 293—310. doi:10.1023/a:1021366131934.
- Hock, Hans Henrich (1983). Kachru, Braj B., ur. „=Language-death phenomena in Sanskrit: grammatical evidence for attrition in contemporary spoken Sanskrit”. Studies in the linguistic Sciences. 13:2.
- Holdrege, Barbara A. (2012). Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-0695-4.
- Jain, Dhanesh; Cardona, George (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
- Jamison, Stephanie W.; Brereton, Joel P. (2014). The Rigveda: 3-Volume Set, Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972078-1.
- A. Berriedale Keith (1993). A history of Sanskrit literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1100-3.
- Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (2017). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook. Walter De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-026128-8.
- Lama, Dalai (1979). „Sanskrit in Tibetan Literature”. The Tibet Journal. 4 (2). JSTOR 43299940.
- Lehmann, Winfred Philipp (1996). Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-13850-5.
- Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (1995). „Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna”. Numen. Brill Academic. 42 (1): 21—47. JSTOR 3270278.
- Mahadevan, Iravatham (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01227-1.
- Malhotra, Rajiv (2016). The Battle for Sanskrit: Is Sanskrit Political or Sacred, Oppressive or Liberating, Dead or Alive?. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-9351775386.
- Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
- Mallory, J. P. (1992). „In Search of the Indo-Europeans / Language, Archaeology and Myth”. Praehistorische Zeitschrift. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. 67 (1). ISSN 1613-0804. doi:10.1515/pz-1992-0118.
- Masica, Colin P. (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
- Michael Meier-Brügger (2003). Indo-European Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017433-5.
- Michael Meier-Brügger (2013). Indo-European Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-089514-8.
- Matilal, Bimal (2015). The word and the world: India's contribution to the study of language. New Delhi, India Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-565512-4. OCLC 59319758.
- Mallory, J. P.; D. Q. Adams (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928791-8.
- V. RAGHAVAN (1965). „Sanskrit”. Indian Literature. Sahitya Akademi. 8 (2): 110—115. JSTOR 23329146.
- MacDonell, Arthur (2004). A History Of Sanskrit Literature. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-0619-2.
- Sir Monier Monier-Williams (2005). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-3105-6.
- Murray, Tim (2007). Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-186-1.
- Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1974). Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia. Sanskrit College.
- Nedi︠a︡lkov, V. P. (2007). Reciprocal constructions. Amsterdam Philadelphia: J. Benjamins Pub. Co. ISBN 978-90-272-2983-0.
- Oberlies, Thomas (2003). A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit. Berlin New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014448-2.
- Petersen, Walter (1912). „Vedic, Sanskrit, and Prakrit”. Journal of the American Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 32 (4). ISSN 0003-0279. doi:10.2307/3087594.
- Pollock, Sheldon (2001). „The Death of Sanskrit”. Comparative Studies in Society and History. Cambridge University Press. 43 (2): 392—426. JSTOR 2696659. doi:10.1017/s001041750100353x.
- V. RAGHAVAN (1968). „Sanskrit: Flow of Studies”. Indian Literature. Sahitya Akademi. 11 (4): 82—87. JSTOR 24157111.
- Renfrew, Colin (1990). Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38675-3.
- Renou, Louis; Balbir, Jagbans Kishore (2004). A history of Sanskrit language. Ajanta. ISBN 978-8-1202-05291.
- Ruppel, A. M. (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3.
- Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3.
- Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3.
- Salomon, Richard (1995). „On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts”. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 115 (2): 271—279. JSTOR 604670. doi:10.2307/604670.
- Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509984-3.
- Salomon, Richard (1995). „On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts”. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 115 (2): 271—279. JSTOR 604670. doi:10.2307/604670.
- Shendge, Malati J. (1997). The Language of the Harappans: From Akkadian to Sanskrit. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-325-0.
- Seth, Sanjay (2007). Subject lessons: the Western education of colonial India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-4105-5.
- Staal, Frits (1986), The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science, Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie von Wetenschappen, Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company
- Staal, J. F. (1963). „Sanskrit and Sanskritization”. The Journal of Asian Studies. Cambridge University Press. 22 (3). JSTOR 2050186. doi:10.2307/2050186.
- Stevenson, Angus; Waite, Maurice (2011). Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960110-3.
- Southworth, Franklin (2004). Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-31777-6.
- Strazny, Philipp (2013). Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-45522-4.
- Thieme, Paul (1958). „The Indo-European Language”. Scientific American. Nature. 199 (4): 63—78. JSTOR 24944793.
- Peter van der Veer (2008). „Does Sanskrit Knowledge Exist?”. Journal of Indian Philosophy. Springer. 36 (5/6): 633—641. JSTOR 23497502.
- Umāsvāti, Umaswami (1994). That which is (Translator: Nathmal Tatia). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-06-068985-8.
- Wayman, Alex (1965). „The Buddhism and the Sanskrit of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit”. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 85 (1). doi:10.2307/597713.
- Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011). Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-024003-0.
- Whitney, W. D. (1885). „The Roots of the Sanskrit Language”. Transactions of the American Philological Association (1869—1896). JSTOR. 16. ISSN 0271-4442. doi:10.2307/2935779.
- Witzel, M (1997). Inside the texts, beyond the texts: New approaches to the study of the Vedas (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
- Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard, ur. The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1.