Varlik vergisi

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Varlik vergisi (tur. Varlık Vergisi; „porez na bogatstvo” ili „porez na kapital”) je bio porez usmeren uglavnom prema nemuslimanima koji su živeli u Turskoj 1942, sa deklarisanim ciljem da se prikupe sredstva za odbranu zemlje u slučaju eventualnog ulaska u Drugi svetski rat. Stvarni razlog je bio ekonomsko uništenje manjinskog nemuslimanskog stanovništva zemlje,[1] okončanje njihove istaknutosti u privredi države[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] i transfer imovine nemuslimana u ruke muslimanske buržoazije.[11] Radilo se o diskriminatornoj meri koja je oporezivala nemuslimane i do deset puta više i dovela je do prenosa značajne količine bogatstva i imovine od nemuslimana ka muslimanima.[12]

Pozadina[uredi | uredi izvor]

Fazil Ahmet Ajkač, jedan od pobornika Varlik vergisija.
Nešet Ozerčan, jedan od protivnika poreza.
Nemuslimani rasprodaju svoj nameštaj da bi platili porez.

Predlog zakona o jednokratnom porezu je predložila vlada Šukrua Saradžoglua, a usvojen je u Parlamentu 11. novembra 1942. Porez se ticao fiksne imovine poput nekretnina, preduzeća i industrijskih postrojenja svih građana, ali je posebno targetirao manjine. Najteže su bili pogođeni nemuslimani poput Jevreja, Grka, Jermena i levantinaca,[13] koji su upravljali velikim delom privrede,[14] ali Jermeni su oporezovani najvišom stopom.[15]

Poreski obveznici su bili svi građani Turske, ali izuzetno visoke stope su nametnute nemuslimanskom stanovništvu na proizvoljan i predatorski način.[16] Pošto su najveći deo poreza plaćali isključivo nemuslimani,[17][18] u javnosti je zakon viđen kao „džizija - kaurski porez” protiv njih.[18] Ovaj porez je doveo do nestanka preostale nemuslimanske trgovačke klase u Turskoj,[17][19][20] a životi i imovina mnogih nemuslimanskih porodica su uništeni.[21][22] Poreske stope su bile toliko visoke da je porez ponekad bio veći od vrednosti celokupne imovine osobe.[23] Dodatno, zakon se primenjivao i na mnoge siromašne nemuslimane poput vozača, radnika pa čak i prosjaka, dok siromašni muslimani nisu morali da plaćaju ovaj porez.[24]

Varlik vergisi je doveo do samoubistava određenog broja stanovnika Istanbula iz redova etničkih manjina.[25][26]

Kategorija stanovništva Poreska stopa[27][28][29]
Jermeni hrišćani 232%
Jevreji 179%
Grci hrišćani 156%
Muslimani 4,94%

Tokom Drugog svetskog rata, Turska je ostala neutralna sve do februara 1945. Zvanično, porez je uveden da bi se popunila državna blagajna sredstvima potrebnim ukoliko bi Nacistička Nemačka ili Sovjetski Savez izvršili invaziju na Tursku. Međutim, glavni razlog za uvođenje ovog poreza je bio da se nacionalizuje turska ekonomija i smanji uticaj i kontrola manjinskog stanovništva nad trgovinom, finansijama i industrijom.[30]

Na porez se nije mogla podneti žalba sudu. Nemuslimani su morali da plate porez u roku od 15 dana u gotovini.[31] Mnogi ljudi koji nisu mogli da priušte da plate porez su pozajmljivali novac od rodbine i prijatelja, ili su prodavali svoju imovinu na javnim aukcijama, ili su prodavali svoje radnje kako bi prikupili neophodan novac.[32][33] Oni koji nisu bili u stanju da plate su bili poslati u radne logore u istočnoj Anadoliji.[34][35][36][37] Radnici su bili plaćeni za svoj rad ali polovina njihove plate je zadržavana u svrhu otplate duga.[38] Zbog teškog oračkog rada neki stariji dužnici su se dogovarali sa mladim seljacima iz Aškalea kako bi oni radili umesto njih, a zauzvrat su dužnici davali seljacima svoje dnevnice.[39] Pet hiljada ljudi je poslato tamo a svi su bili nemuslimani,[40] jer su muslimanski obveznici koji nisu platili porez dobijali blaže kazne.[41] Takođe, postojale su olakšice za plaćanje i popusti za muslimane. Iako je zakon propisivao da su ljudi stariji od pedeset i pet godina izuzeti od prinudnog rada, stariji, pa čak i bolesni ljudi su takođe slati u radne logore.[42] Dvadeset i jedna osoba poslata u radne logore je tamo umrla[43] a turska vlada je otela njihovu imovinu i prodala je turskim muslimanima po izuzetno niskim cenama, što je utabalo put stvaranju nekih od savremenih turskih konglomerata.[44]

Država je takođe konfiskovala imovinu dužnikovih rođaka (uključujući roditelje, roditelje supružnika, decu i braću i sestre), i prodavala ovu imovinu kako bi namirila poreski dug, čak i ako bi dužnik bio oteran na prinudni rad.[45]

Strani državljani koji su živeli u Turskoj su takođe morali da plate visok jednokratni porez na svoje procenjeno bogatstvo. Međutim, niko od njih nije finansijski uništen niti je počinio samoubistvo. Ovaj porez nije bio baziran na realnoj situaciji, već su ga vlasti proizvoljno određivale.[46] Ovo je navelo strane ambasade i konzulate da intervenišu u korist svojih državljana.[47]

Poreski obveznici su razvrstani u četiri spiska, „M” spisak, za muslimane, „G”, za nemuslimane (Gayrimuslim), „E”, za strance (Ecnebi) i „D” za konvertite (Dönme).[48]

Ovaj strogo sprovođeni, diskriminatorski zakon nije doveo do rezultata kojima se vlada nadala. Preduzeća su značajno podigla cene svojih proizvoda kako bi se oporavila od gubitaka, što je dovelo do spirale inflacije koja je uništila potrošače sa nižim primanjima.

Međutim, prema zvaničnim podacima, turska vlada je prikupila 324 miliona lira (u vreme kada je 1 američki dolar vredeo 1,20 turskih lira) konfiskacijom imovine nemuslimana.[16] Ova količina novca bi danas vredela više od 4 milijarde američkih dolara.[traži se izvor]

Prema Faiku Ekteu, direktoru finansija za provinciju Istanbul u vreme Varlik vergisija, turska vlada je prikupila 289.256.246 lira od nemuslimanskih manjina, 34.226.764 lira od konvertita i 25.600.409 lira od muslimana.[49]

Tokom ovog perioda, turska štampa je navodno objavljivala članke i izveštaje usmerene protiv manjina.[50][51][52]

Poništavanje i posledice[uredi | uredi izvor]

Ovaj zakon nije mogao da opstane suočen sa oštrom međunarodnom kritikom. Pod pritiskom Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva i Sjedinjenih Država, poniten je 15. marta 1944.[53] Nakon poništavanja, pripadnici manjina koji su poslati u radne logore su pušteni kućama.[54] Turska vlada je obećala da će vratiti plaćeni porez nemuslimanima, ali do toga nije došlo.[55]

Opoziciona Demokratska partija je iskoristila njegovu nepopularnost na opštim izborima 1950,[14] što su bili prvi demokratski opšti izbori u Turskoj Republici. Na ovim izborima je Demokratska partija ostvarila jasnu pobedu nad Republikanskom narodnom partijom.

Ovi porezi su doneli trajnu demografsku promenu unutar manjinskog stanovništva. Mnogi pripadnici manjina, posebno grčke manjine, su osećali da za njih nema budućnosti u Turskoj, i napustili su svoje domove i postali izbeglice u Grčkoj. Sa druge strane, neki, posebno pripadnici jevrejske zajednice su uspeli da izvuku svoju imovinu u inostranstvo i da obnove svoj nesiguran život u Turskoj.[56] Porez je takođe doveo do konfiskacije velike količine manjinske imovine u Istanbulu, što je „turkifikovalo” ne samo privredu već i sam grad.[57] Popis iz 1935. je zabeležio 1,98% nemuslimanskog stanovništva; do 1945, ovaj procenat je pao na 1,54%.

Takođe, Varlik vergisi je još jednom demonstrirao da je muslimanska veroispovest predstavljala značajan deo definicije državljanstva u Turskoj.[58]

Način na koji je turska štampa pisala o ovom porezu predstavlja primer bliskih odnosa između izvršne vlasti i štampe u turskoj.[59]

Varlik vergisi je naterao mala preduzeća da prekinu svoje poslovanje ili da prodaju imovinu velikim preduzećima, što je ostavilo tržište pod kontrolom krupnog kapitala.[60]

Godine 1951, Faik Ekte je objavio svoje memoare. U njima je priznao da je porez bio primenjivan na diskriminatorski način prema nemuslimanima. Turska štampa ga je osudila zbog objavljivanja ove izjave i proglasila ga „izdajnikom otadžbine”.[61]

Godinama nakon uvođenja ovog poreza, za političku elitu Turske je suočavanje sa ovom temom bilo problematično. Istorijski roman Salkım Hanım'ın Taneleri (različito prevođen kao Dijamanti/Biseri/Perle/Ogrlica gospođe Salkim), turskog pisca Jilmaza Karakojunlua, prati priče i svedočanstva nemuslimana tokom primene Varlik vergisija. Roman je uskoro pretočen u istoimeni film. Članovi parlamenta, poput Ahmeta Čakara iz Partije nacionalističkog pokreta, su oštro negodovali zbog prikazivanja ovog filma.[62]

Vidi još[uredi | uredi izvor]

Reference[uredi | uredi izvor]

  1. ^ Nowill, Sidney E. P. (decembar 2011). Constantinople and Istanbul: 72 Years of Life in Turkey. Matador. str. 77. ISBN 978-1848767911. "In reality, the idea was to reduce the influence of the minority non-Turkish citizens to the country's affairs."
  2. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 75. ISBN 978-1780760261. "These quotations reveal that the real reason for the Wealth Tax was the elimination of non-Muslims from the economy."
  3. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 75. ISBN 978-1780760261. "However, the underlying reason was the elimination of minorities from the economy, and the replacement of the non-Muslim bourgeoisie by its Turkish counterpart."
  4. ^ C. Fortna, Benjamin; Katsikas, Stefanos; Kamouzis, Dimitris; Konortas, Paraskevas (decembar 2012). State-Nationalisms in the Ottoman Empire, Greece and Turkey: Orthodox and Muslims, 1830-1945 (SOAS/Routledge Studies on the Middle East). Routledge. str. 195. ISBN 978-0415690560. "... an attempt was being made by means of the Wealth Tax to eliminate the minorities who occupied an important place in Turkey's commercial life."
  5. ^ Akıncılar, Nihan; Rogers, Amanda E.; Dogan, Evinc; Brindisi, Jennifer; Alexieva, Anna; Schimmang, Beatrice (decembar 2011). Young Minds Rethinking the Mediterranean. Istanbul Kultur University. str. 23. ISBN 978-0415690560. "The first visible attempt in order to remove minorities from economic life was the implementation of 'Wealth Tax' in 1942 which was accepted in the National Assembly with the claim of balancing and distributing properties of minorities. The actual aim behind the scenes was to impoverish the non-Muslim minorities and eliminate them from the competition in the national economy. Instead, the RPP government tried to create a new wealthy Turkish Muslim bourgeoisie."
  6. ^ Turam, Berna (januar 2012). Secular State and Religious Society: Two Forces in Play in Turkey. Palgrave Macmillan. str. 43. ISBN 978-0230338616. "With the introduction of the Varlik Vergisi (capital tax) in 1942, which aimed to confiscate the property and assets of non-Muslims, an attempt was made to bring the national economy also under the control of Muslim citizens."
  7. ^ Çetinoğlu, Sait (2012). „The Mechanisms for Terrorizing Minorities: The Capital Tax and Work Battalions in Turkey during the Second World War”. Mediterranean Quarterly. 23. DUKE University Press. str. 14. S2CID 154339814. doi:10.1215/10474552-1587838. "The aim was to destroy the economic and cultural base of these minorities, loot their properties and means of livelihood, and, at the same time "turkify" the economy of Turkey."
  8. ^ Egorova, Yulia (jul 2013). Jews, Muslims and Mass Media: Mediating the 'Other. Routledge. str. 43. ISBN 978-0253005267. "That tax was instrumental in transferring the control of the market from the non-Muslim groups to the Muslims."
  9. ^ Brink-Danan, Marcy (decembar 2011). Jewish Life in Twenty-First-Century Turkey: The Other Side of Tolerance (New Anthropologies of Europe). Indiana University Press. str. 11. ISBN 978-0253223500. "Varlik Vergisi is commonly translated as "Capital Tax" or "Wealth Tax" we might, however, consider an alternate translation of varlik as "presence" which focuses attention on the devaluation- both financial and political of minority presence during this time"
  10. ^ Guttstadt, Corry (maj 2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. str. 76. ISBN 978-0521769914. "... We will use it to eliminate the foreigners who control the market and hand the Turkish market over the Turks." "The foreigners to be eliminated" referred primarily to the non-Muslims citizens of Turkey."
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  13. ^ Nowill, Sidney E. P. (decembar 2011). Constantinople and Istanbul: 72 Years of Life in Turkey. Matador. str. 77. ISBN 978-1848767911. "Those mmainly afflicted were the Greeks, Jews, Armenians, and, to some extent, foreign-passport Levantine families."
  14. ^ a b Güven, Dilek (6. 9. 2005). „6-7 Eylül Olayları (1)”. Türkiye. Radikal (na jeziku: turski). Pristupljeno 25. 10. 2008. „Nitekim 1942 yılında yürürlüğe giren Varlık Vergisi, Ermenilerin, Rumların ve Yahudilerin ekonomideki liderliğine son vermeyi hedeflemiştir...Seçim dönemleri CHP ve DP'nin Varlık Vergisi'nin geri ödeneceği yönündeki vaatleri ise seçim propagandasından ibarettir.” 
  15. ^ Smith, Thomas W. (29. 8. — 2. 9. 2001). Constructing A Human Rights Regime in Turkey: Dilemmas of Civic Nationalism and Civil Society (PDF). American Political Science Association Annual Conference San Francisco. str. 4. Arhivirano iz originala (PDF) 18. 3. 2003. g. „One of the darkest events in Turkish history was the Wealth Tax, levied discriminatory against non-Muslims in 1942, hobbling Armenians with the most punitive rates.” 
  16. ^ a b „Varlik vergisi (asset tax) - one of the many black chapters of Turkish history...”. Assyrian Chaldean Syriac Association. Pristupljeno 14. 10. 2011. 
  17. ^ a b Kasaba, Reşat (jun 2008). The Cambridge History of Turkey (Volume 4). Cambridge University Press. str. 182. ISBN 978-0521620963. "But in its application it differentiated between Muslim and non-Muslim taxpayers, and levied far heavier taxes on non-Muslims, leading to the destruction of the remaining non-Muslim merchant class in Turkey."
  18. ^ a b Guttstadt, Corry (maj 2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. str. 75. ISBN 978-0521769914. "They were almost exclusively non-Muslims. The law was thus perceived by the public as a "punitive measure" against non-Muslims."."
  19. ^ Brink-Danan, Marcy (decembar 2011). Jewish Life in Twenty-First-Century Turkey: The Other Side of Tolerance (New Anthropologies of Europe). Indiana University Press. str. 11. ISBN 978-0253223500. "Further, the Varlik Vergisi, an excessive tax instituted during World War II, pilfered small Jewish (and other minority) businesses to the point of bankruptcy"
  20. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 76. ISBN 978-1780760261. "Due to the law, most non-Muslim merchants sold their properties and vanished from the markets."
  21. ^ Kasaba, Reşat (jun 2008). The Cambridge History of Turkey (Volume 4). Cambridge University Press. str. 182. ISBN 978-0521620963. "As a consequence of Varlık Vergisi and the labour camps, the lives and finances of many non-Muslim families were ruined."
  22. ^ Egorova, Yulia (jul 2013). Jews, Muslims and Mass Media: Mediating the 'Other. Routledge. str. 43. ISBN 978-0253005267. "..., by the time that tax was abolished the major Greek, Armenian and Jewish merchant figures were shaken and dislocated."
  23. ^ Bayir, Derya (januar 2013). Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law. Routledge. ISBN 978-1409420071. 
  24. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 74. ISBN 978-1780760261. "The law was also applied to the many poor non-Muslims (numbering 26,000) such as drivers, workers and even beggars, whereas their Muslim counterparts were not obliged to pay any tax."
  25. ^ Nowill, Sidney E. P. (decembar 2011). Constantinople and Istanbul: 72 Years of Life in Turkey. Matador. str. 78. ISBN 978-1848767911. "The Varlık resulted in a number of suicides of ethnic minority citizens in Istanbul, indeed, I saw one myself. One evening while on a ferryboat I saw a man jump off the stern into the Bosphorus current."
  26. ^ Guttstadt, Corry (maj 2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. str. 76. ISBN 978-0521769914. "Some people committed suicide in despair."
  27. ^ Corry Guttstadt: Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press, 2013. p. 75
  28. ^ Andrew G. Bostom: The Legacy of Islamic Antisemitism: From Sacred Texts to Solemn History. Prometheus Books; Reprint edition, 2008. p. 124
  29. ^ Nergis Erturk: Grammatology and Literary Modernity in Turkey. Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 141
  30. ^ Aktar, Ayhan (2006). Varlık vergisi ve "Türkleştirme" politikalarıNeophodna slobodna registracija (na jeziku: turski) (8. bs. izd.). İstanbul: İletişim. ISBN 9754707790. 
  31. ^ Peretz, Don (januar 1994). The Middle East Today. Greenwood Publishing Group. str. 179. ISBN 9780275945756. "In addition, the non-Muslims were required to pay their taxes in cash within 15 days."
  32. ^ Peretz, Don (januar 1994). The Middle East Today. Greenwood Publishing Group. str. 179. ISBN 9780275945756. "The property of individuals who could not raise their assessments was sold at public auctions,..."
  33. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 74—75. ISBN 978-1780760261. "..as a result they had to sell their businesses or property to Muslim businessmen at low prices to cover the bill."
  34. ^ Nowill, Sidney E. P. (decembar 2011). Constantinople and Istanbul: 72 Years of Life in Turkey. Matador. str. 77. ISBN 978-1848767911. "..., and those unable to pay were packed off to a camp at Askale, near Erzerum - an area cooler than Moscow in the winter - where they were put to work breaking stones."
  35. ^ Nowill, Sidney E. P. (decembar 2011). Constantinople and Istanbul: 72 Years of Life in Turkey. Matador. str. 77. ISBN 978-1848767911. "The Askale victims were later sent south to a camp in the Tigris Valley."
  36. ^ Peretz, Don (januar 1994). The Middle East Today. Greenwood Publishing Group. str. 179. ISBN 9780275945756. "..., and if the sale failed to produce the required amount, the owners were sent to forced labor camps run by the Ministry of Public Works."
  37. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 74—75. ISBN 978-1780760261. "Those unable to pay had to work off their debt in labour camps in Askale, in eastern Turkey."
  38. ^ „KANUN: Varlık Vergisi hakkında Kanun” (PDF). Resmi Gazete (na jeziku: turski). „Madde 12 - ...Bu fıkra hükmüne göre çalıştırılanlara verilecek yarısı borçlarına mahsup olunur.” 
  39. ^ Ayhan, Aktar (2011). Yorgo Hacıdimitriadis'in Aşkale-Erzurum Günlüğü (1943). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. "Yaşlılar, Kop geçidinde kar temizleme işinin ağırlığından dolayı Aşkaleli köylülerden bazıları ile anlaşarak kendi yerlerine gençleri çalışmaya göndermişler, bunun karşılığında da onlara günlük ödeme yapmışlardır."
  40. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 75. ISBN 978-1780760261. "Out of 40,000 tax debtors, about 5,000 were sent to these camps, and all of these were members of non-Muslim communities."
  41. ^ Kasaba, Reşat (jun 2008). The Cambridge History of Turkey (Volume 4). Cambridge University Press. str. 182. ISBN 978-0521620963. "Muslims taxpayers who failed to pay in full received lighter sentences."
  42. ^ Guttstadt, Corry (maj 2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. str. 77. ISBN 978-0521769914. "Although the law stipulated that people over fifty-five years old were exempt from labor service, seventy-five and eighty year old men and even sick people were dragged to the train station and deported."
  43. ^ Guttstadt, Corry (maj 2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. str. 77. ISBN 978-0521769914. "Twenty-one people died in these camps."
  44. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 75. ISBN 978-1780760261. "Unfortunately, 21 people died in these camps and the government usurped their wealth and sold it to Turkish Muslims at low prices."
  45. ^ Guttstadt, Corry (maj 2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. str. 79. ISBN 978-0521769914. "The law empowered the state to confiscate the property of the taxed person's closed relatives (including parents, parents-in-law, children, and siblings) and to sell it to settle the tax amount, even if the person had been forced into labor service."
  46. ^ Nowill, Sidney E. P. (decembar 2011). Constantinople and Istanbul: 72 Years of Life in Turkey. Matador. str. 77. ISBN 978-1848767911. "No foreign-passport residents in Turkey were ruined or committed suicide. However, every foreigner who gave in a tax-return, or owned a business, was forced to pay a huge capital levy on supposed wealth. The tax was not based on any reality, but just on a whim of the Authorities."
  47. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 75. ISBN 978-1780760261. "This provoked the intervention of foreign embassies and consulates on behalf of their nationals."
  48. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 75. ISBN 978-1780760261. "Taxpayers were classified into two separate lists, the M list, for Muslims, the G, for non-Muslims (Gayrimuslim). Later, two other categories were added, E, for Foreigners (Ecnebi) and the D for converts (Dönme), i.e., members of the Sabetaist sect of Jewish converts to Islam."
  49. ^ Valansi, Karel (februar 2018). The Crescent Moon and the Magen David: Turkish-Israeli Relations Through the Lens of the Turkish Public. Hamilton Books. str. 129. ISBN 978-0761870081. 
  50. ^ C. Fortna, Benjamin; Katsikas, Stefanos; Kamouzis, Dimitris; Konortas, Paraskevas (decembar 2012). State-Nationalisms in the Ottoman Empire, Greece and Turkey: Orthodox and Muslims, 1830-1945 (SOAS/Routledge Studies on the Middle East). Routledge. str. 205. ISBN 978-0415690560. "One or two weeks after the Wealth Tax lists were displayed, the attitude of the press began to harden further. The "anti-minority" attitude of the news reporting and leading articles that appeared to the press became more pronounced. In particular, during the process of levying distress and sending taxpayers to Askale, anti-minority sentiment reached its zenith."
  51. ^ Guttstadt, Corry (maj 2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. str. 72. ISBN 978-0521769914. "The newspapers depicted individual black marketers or suspected "usurers" as "parasites of the Turkish people"; those explicitly named were always non-Muslims."
  52. ^ Guttstadt, Corry (maj 2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. str. 72. ISBN 978-0521769914. "Although the smear campaign was directed against non-Muslim minorities in general, it was mostly Jews who were specifically targeted by articles and caricatures, which employed stereotypical anti-Semitic tropes.
  53. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 76. ISBN 978-1780760261. "The Wealth Tax was withdrawn in March 1944, under the pressure of criticism from Britain and the United States"
  54. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 76. ISBN 978-1780760261. "Minority citizens still in the camps were sent back to their homes."
  55. ^ Akıncılar, Nihan; Rogers, Amanda E.; Dogan, Evinc; Brindisi, Jennifer; Alexieva, Anna; Schimmang, Beatrice (decembar 2011). Young Minds Rethinking the Mediterranean. Istanbul Kultur University. str. 23. ISBN 978-0415690560. "Although the RPP government promised to give back the paid taxes to non-Muslims, it did not happen."
  56. ^ Nowill, Sidney E. P. (decembar 2011). Constantinople and Istanbul: 72 Years of Life in Turkey. Matador. str. 77. ISBN 978-1848767911. "The Varlık Vergisi brought about a permanent demographic change within the minority population. Many (especially the Greek minority) felt that there was no future for them in Turkey, and they left their ancestral homes and became refugees in Greece. On the other hand, some, especially within the Jewish community had managed to secrete assets abroad and they were able to re-start a reduced and hesitant life in Turkey, being careful to abstain from displaying any sign of affluence."
  57. ^ Mills, Amy (jun 2010). Streets of Memory: Landscape, Tolerance, and National Identity in Istanbul. University of Georgia Press. str. 54. ISBN 978-0820335742. "The tax resulted in state confiscation of much minority property in Istanbul, Turkifying not only the city's economy but also its landscape".
  58. ^ Ince, Basak (april 2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day. I. B. Tauris. str. 76. ISBN 978-1780760261. "The Wealth Tax once more demonstrated that being Muslim constituted a significant part of the definition of citizenship in Turkey."
  59. ^ ANGELETOPOULOS, GEORGE. THE TURKISH CAPITAL TAX (VARLIK VERGISI): AN EVALUATION (PDF). str. 365. "The Capital Tax in the way it was dealt with by the Turkish Press exemplifies exactly the close relations between these two Powers, the Executive and the Press, in World War II Turkey."
  60. ^ Vanderlippe, John M. (jun 2006). The Politics of Turkish Democracy: Ismet Inonu And the Formation of the Multi-Party System, 1938-1950. State University of New York Press. str. 85—86. ISBN 978-0791464366. 
  61. ^ Bali, Rifat (april 2012). Model Citizens of the State: The Jews of Turkey during the Multi-Party Period. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. str. 30. ISBN 978-1611475364. 
  62. ^ „MHP's Cakar blames Karakoyunlu for being, a 'Traitor'”. Turkish Daily News. Ankara. 28. 11. 2001. „This scene insults Turkish officers and they try to show our officers as a indecent people. As Turkish nationalists, it is not possible for us to accept it,” 

Dalja literatura[uredi | uredi izvor]

  • Levi, Avner (1996). Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nde Yahudiler (na jeziku: turski) (1. izd.). İstanbul, Turkey: İletişim Yayınları. ISBN 975-470-583-6. 
  • Aktar, Ayhan (2002). Varlık Vergisi ve "Türkleştirme" PolitikalarıNeophodna slobodna registracija (na jeziku: turski) (6. izd.). İstanbul, Turkey: İletişim Yayınları. ISBN 975-470-779-0. 
  • Özcan, Yeldağ (1998). Çoğunluk Aydınlarında Irkçılık (na jeziku: turski) (1. izd.). İstanbul, Turkey: Belge Uluslararası Yayıncılık. ISBN 978-975-344-160-5. 
  • Özcan, Yeldağ (2000). İstanbul'da Diyarbakır'da Azalırken (na jeziku: turski) (3. izd.). İstanbul, Turkey: Belge Uluslararası Yayıncılık. ISBN 975-344-110-X. 
Preuzeto iz „https://sr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Варлик_вергиси&oldid=27677905”