Indijska književnost

Indijska književnost se odnosi na književnost objavljenu na Indijskom potkontinentu do 1947. godine i u Republici Indiji nakon toga. Republika Indija ima 22 zvanično priznata jezika.

Najstarija dela indijske književnosti prenošena su usmenim putem. Sanskritska književnost počinje usmenom književnošću Rigvede, zbirkom svetih himni koje datiraju iz perioda od 1500. do 1200. godine p. n. e. Sanskritski epovi Ramajana i Mahabharata pojavili su se krajem II milenijuma p. n. e. Klasična sanskritska književnost brzo se razvijala tokom prvih vekova prvog milenijuma p. n. e,^[1] kao i tamilska sangamska književnost i Pali kanon.

Rani srednji vek u Indiji (od 8. do12. vek) predstavlja važan period u razvoju klasične sanskritske književnosti. Posle doba Gupta carstva, književna kultura razvijala se u okviru regionalnih kraljevstava koja su podsticala intelektualnu razmenu između hinduističkih i budističkih tradicija. U istočnoj Indiji dinastija Pala (IAST: Pāla-vaṃśa)^[2] podržavala je sanskritsku učenost, a manastiri su postali centri za sastavljanje antologija. U takvom okruženju nastala je antologija Subhašitaratnakoša (IAST: Subhāṣitaratnakośa),^[3] koju je u 12. veku u manastiru Džagadala mahavihara (IAST: Jagaddala Mahāvihāra)^[4] sastavio Vidjakara (IAST: Vidyākara).^[5] U antologiji Subhašitaratnakoša zabeleženi su i stihovi retkih pesnikinja iz tog perioda koje izvori pominju: Bhavakadevi (IAST: Bhāvakadevī)^[6] uz Vikatanitambu (IAST:Vikaṭanitambā)^[7] i Vidju (IAST:Vidyā).^[8] Antologija Subhašitaratnakoša predstavlja jednu od najznačajnijih zbirki sanskritske poezije, jer sistematski sakuplja i tematski organizuje stihove brojnih pesnika, čime je odigrala ključnu ulogu u očuvanju i prenošenju klasične poetske tradicije u indijskoj književnosti.^[9]

U srednjovekovnom periodu, književnost na kanadskom i teluškom pojavile su se u 9. i 11. veku, respektivno.^[10] Kasnije se pojavila književnost na maratijskom, odijskom i bengalskom. Nakon toga počela se pojavljivati i književnost na raznim dijalektima hindskog, persijskog i urduskog jezika. Početkom 20. veka, bengalski pesnik Rabindranat Tagor postao je prvi indijski dobitnik Nobelove nagrade za književnost. U savremenoj indijskoj književnosti postoje dve glavne književne nagrade; to su stipendija Sahitja akademije i nagrada Džnanpit. Osam Džnanpit nagrada je dodeljeno za dela na hindijskom i kanadskom, čemu sledi pet za radove na bengalskom i malajalamskom, četiri u odijskom, četiri u gudžaratiju, maratiju, telugu i urdu,^[11]^[12] po dve na asamesiju i tamilu, te jedna za delo na sanskritu.

Na arhaičnim indijskim jezicima

Prakritska književnost

Najistaknutiji prakritski jezici bili su đainski prakrit (Ardamagadi), pali, maharaštri i šauraseni.

Jedno od najranijih postojećih prakritskih dela je Halova antologija pesama u Maharaštrija, Gaha Satasaj, koja datira od 3. do 5. veka p. n. e.. Kalidasu i Haršu su takođe koristili Maharaštri u nekim svojih predstava i poeziji. U džainizmu su mnoga Svetambarska dela napisana u Maharaštri.

Mnoge drame Asvagose napisane su u šauraseni, kao i veliki broj Đainskih dela i Rajasekarovih Karpuramanjara. Kanto 13 Batikavije^[13] napisan je u onome što se naziva „poput vernakulara” (basasama), odnosno može se čitati na dva jezika istovremeno: prakritu i sanskritu.^[14]

Tamilska književnost

Sangamska književnost (tamilski: சங்க இலக்கியம், Sanga ilakkiyam) je drevna tamilska književnost perioda u istoriji Južne Indije (poznatog kao tamilakam ili tamilagam) koji se proteže od oko 300. p. n. e. do 300. godine (Akananuru (1, 15, 31, 55, 61, 65, 91, 97, 101, 115, 127, 187, 197, 201, 211, 233, 251, 265, 281, 311, 325, 331, 347, 349, 359, 393, 281, 295), Kuruntogaj (11), Natrinaj (14, 75) datirani su pre 300. p. n. e.).^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19] Ova kolekcija sadrži 2381 poemu na tamilskom jeziku koju su sačinila 473 pesnika, od kojih je oko 102 ostalo anonimno.^[20] Većina raspoložive sangamske književnosti je iz Trećeg Sangama.^[21] Taj period je poznat kao sangamski period, i odnosi se na preovlađujuće legende o Sangamu koje pominju književne akademije hiljadama godina stare, što daje naziv korpusu književnosti.^[22]^[23]^[24] Jedine verske pesme među kraćim pesmama javljaju se u paripatalu. Ostatak korpusa Sangamske književnosti se bavi ljudskim odnosom i emocijama.^[25]

Sangamska književnost se bavi emocionalnim i materijalnim temama kao što su ljubav, rat, upravljanje, trgovina i nesreća.^[26] Tokom sangamskog perioda su živeli neki od najvećih tamilskih učenjaka, poput Tiruvaluvara, koji je pisao o etici i o raznim životnim pitanjima poput vrline, bogatstva i ljubavi, ili tamilskog pesnika Mamulanara, koji je istraživao istorijske incidente koji su se dogodili u Indiji.^[27]^[28]

Reference

^ Narayanrao, H.L.. „A Brief on Indian Literature and Languages”. Journal of Education and Practice. 2 (3): 46. ISSN 2222-288X.
^ „Pala Dynasty - Banglapedia”. en.banglapedia.org (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2026-03-11.
^ Vidyākara, Kosambi DD, Gokhale VV, ур. (1957). The Subhāṣitaratnakoṣa. 42 (Harvard oriental series). Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674853805.
^ „Jagaddala Mahavihara - Banglapedia”. en.banglapedia.org (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2026-03-11.
^ Vidyākara (1968). Sanskrit Poetry, from Vidyākara's Treasury (на језику: енглески). Превод: Ingalls, Daniel Henry Holmes. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674788558.
^ www.wisdomlib.org (2020-04-15). „Bhavadevi, Bhāvadevī, Bhava-devi: 3 definitions”. www.wisdomlib.org (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2026-03-11.
^ www.wisdomlib.org (2020-09-03). „Vikatanitamba, Vikaṭanitambā, Vikata-nitamba: 4 definitions”. www.wisdomlib.org (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2026-03-11.
^ Oklahoma, Central (2021-04-28). „Vidyā : Three Women Poets”. Broncho Blogs (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2026-03-11. ^{[мртва веза]}
^ „Subhasitaratnakosa - Banglapedia”. en.banglapedia.org. Приступљено 2026-03-11.
^ „Kannada literature”. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. . Quote: "The earliest literary work is the Kavirajamarga (c. AD 450), a treatise on poetics based on a Sanskrit model."
^ Home”. jnanpith.net. Приступљено 31. 7. 2019.
^ „Kunwar Narayan to be awarded Jnanpith”. Times of India. 24. 11. 2008. Архивирано из оригинала 5. 12. 2012. г. Приступљено 25. 11. 2008.
^ Fallon, Oliver. 2009. Bhatti's Poem: The Death of Rávana (Bhaṭṭikāvya). New York: Clay Sanskrit Library [1] Bhatti's Poem: The Death of Ravana. април 2009. ISBN 978-0-8147-2778-2. . |. |
^ Narang, Satya Pal. 2003. An Analysis of the Prākṛta of Bhāśā-sama of the Bhaṭṭi-kāvya (Canto XII). In: Prof. Mahapatra G.N., Vanijyotih: Felicitation Volume, Utkal University, *Bhuvaneshwar.
^ There are some who claim earlier dates (up to 600 BCE). Others cite as late as 2BCE. The date of 300 BCE may represent a middle-of-the road consensus view; e.g. see the well-received textbook Ancient India, 2009, стр. 15 , Upinder Singh, , . However, it is quite likely that the songs existed in oral tradition well before this date.
^ Kamil Veith Zvelebil. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. стр. 12.
^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastry (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. стр. 105. .
^ „Classical Tamil”. Архивирано из оригинала 07. 07. 2010. г. Приступљено 15. 12. 2019.
^ T.S. Subramanian (10. 7. 2009). „Jain History of Tamil Nadu vandalised”. Приступљено 3. 6. 2011. „The six Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions of the 2nd century B.C. on the brow of five caverns on the Kazhugumalai hill near Mankulam, 38 km from Madurai, are the most ancient ones in Tamil Nadu and establish the historical facts that the Pandyan king Nedunchezhiyan ruled in the 2nd century B.C. and that Sangam literature dates back to the same period.”
^ George L. Hart III, The Poems of Ancient Tamil, U of California P, 1975.
^ Iḷaṅkōvaṭikaḷ (1. 1. 1965). Shilappadikaram: (The Ankle Bracelet) (на језику: енглески). New Directions Publishing. ISBN 9780811200011.
^ Irayanaar Agapporul dated to c 750 AD first mentioned the Sangam legends. An inscription of the early tenth century AD mentions the achievements of the early Pandya kings of establishing a Sangam in Madurai. See K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, A History of South India. Oxford University Press. 1955. стр. 105. .
^ "The latest limit of Ettutokai and Pattupattu may be placed around 700 AD...." – Vaiyapuri Pillai, History of Tamil language and literature. стр. 38.
^ "...the Tamil language of these brief records achieved a flowering during the first centuries of the Common Era, culminating in the emergence of a poetic corpus of very high quality [...] To this corpus the name sangam poetry was added soon afterwards...." Burton Stein, A History of India. Blackwell. 1998. стр. 90.
^ See K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, . Oxford University Press. 1955.
^ Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India – Abraham, Shinu Anna, Asian Perspectives – 42 (2): 207–223,,University of Hawaii Press
^ Morality and Ethics in Public Life by Ravindra Kumar, стр. 92
^ Essays on Indian Society by Raj Kumar, стр. 71

Literatura

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Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004). „Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature”. Ур.: Chemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 9781402023200. ^{[мртва веза]}
Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
Flood, Gavin, ур. (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3251-0.
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MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (1900), A History of Sanskrit Literature, New York: D. Appleton and Co, OCLC 713426994 (full text online)
Mahadevan, T.M.P (1952). Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Ardeshir Ruttonji Wadia; Dhirendra Mohan Datta, ур. History of Philosophy, Eastern and Western. George Allen & Unwin. OCLC 929704391.
Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9.
Monier-Williams, Monier, ур. (1851). Dictionary, English and Sanskrit. London: Honourable East-India Company. OCLC 5333096. (reprinted 2006 as. ISBN 978-1-881338-58-1.)
Muir, John (1861). Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and Progress of the Religion and Institutions of India. Williams and Norgate.
Müller, Max (1891). Chips from a German Workshop. New York: C. Scribner's sons. .
Olivelle, Patrick (1999). Dharmasutras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283882-7.
Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, Charles A., ур. (1957). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (12th Princeton Paperback изд.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01958-1.
Staal, Frits (1986). The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science. Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie von Wetenschappen, North Holland Publishing Company.
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Sullivan, B. M. (leto 1994). The Religious Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition. Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 62. стр. 377—401. doi:10.1093/jaarel/LXII.2.377.
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Witzel, Michael (1997), Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora; vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
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Jain, Vijay K. (2011). Acharya Umasvami's Tattvarthsutra (1st изд.). Uttarakhand: Vikalp Printers. ISBN 978-81-903639-2-1. „ Овај чланак користи текст рада који је у јавном власништву.”
Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998). The Jaina Path of Purification. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0. Непознати параметар |orig-date= игнорисан (помоћ)
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Spoljašnje veze

„Indian Literature on Indohistory”. Архивирано на веб-сајту Wayback Machine (10. август 2019)
Indian Literature, Fiction and Poetry Magazine
Bhas - Longest Poem on Indian Constitution set World Record
Literature in India
Online Indian Literature Website Pandulipi

[1] Narayanrao, H.L.. „A Brief on Indian Literature and Languages”. Journal of Education and Practice. 2 (3): 46. ISSN 2222-288X.

[2] „Pala Dynasty - Banglapedia”. en.banglapedia.org (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2026-03-11.

[3] Vidyākara, Kosambi DD, Gokhale VV, ур. (1957). The Subhāṣitaratnakoṣa. 42 (Harvard oriental series). Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674853805.

[4] „Jagaddala Mahavihara - Banglapedia”. en.banglapedia.org (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2026-03-11.

[5] Vidyākara (1968). Sanskrit Poetry, from Vidyākara's Treasury (на језику: енглески). Превод: Ingalls, Daniel Henry Holmes. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674788558.

[6] www.wisdomlib.org (2020-04-15). „Bhavadevi, Bhāvadevī, Bhava-devi: 3 definitions”. www.wisdomlib.org (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2026-03-11.

[7] www.wisdomlib.org (2020-09-03). „Vikatanitamba, Vikaṭanitambā, Vikata-nitamba: 4 definitions”. www.wisdomlib.org (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2026-03-11.

[8] Oklahoma, Central (2021-04-28). „Vidyā : Three Women Poets”. Broncho Blogs (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2026-03-11. ^{[мртва веза]}

[9] „Subhasitaratnakosa - Banglapedia”. en.banglapedia.org. Приступљено 2026-03-11.

[10] „Kannada literature”. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. . Quote: "The earliest literary work is the Kavirajamarga (c. AD 450), a treatise on poetics based on a Sanskrit model."

[11] Home”. jnanpith.net. Приступљено 31. 7. 2019.

[award2008-12] „Kunwar Narayan to be awarded Jnanpith”. Times of India. 24. 11. 2008. Архивирано из оригинала 5. 12. 2012. г. Приступљено 25. 11. 2008.

[13] Fallon, Oliver. 2009. Bhatti's Poem: The Death of Rávana (Bhaṭṭikāvya). New York: Clay Sanskrit Library [1] Bhatti's Poem: The Death of Ravana. април 2009. ISBN 978-0-8147-2778-2. . |. |

[14] Narang, Satya Pal. 2003. An Analysis of the Prākṛta of Bhāśā-sama of the Bhaṭṭi-kāvya (Canto XII). In: Prof. Mahapatra G.N., Vanijyotih: Felicitation Volume, Utkal University, *Bhuvaneshwar.

[15] There are some who claim earlier dates (up to 600 BCE). Others cite as late as 2BCE. The date of 300 BCE may represent a middle-of-the road consensus view; e.g. see the well-received textbook Ancient India, 2009, стр. 15 , Upinder Singh, , . However, it is quite likely that the songs existed in oral tradition well before this date.

[16] Kamil Veith Zvelebil. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. стр. 12.

[17] K.A. Nilakanta Sastry (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. стр. 105. .

[18] „Classical Tamil”. Архивирано из оригинала 07. 07. 2010. г. Приступљено 15. 12. 2019.

[19] T.S. Subramanian (10. 7. 2009). „Jain History of Tamil Nadu vandalised”. Приступљено 3. 6. 2011. „The six Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions of the 2nd century B.C. on the brow of five caverns on the Kazhugumalai hill near Mankulam, 38 km from Madurai, are the most ancient ones in Tamil Nadu and establish the historical facts that the Pandyan king Nedunchezhiyan ruled in the 2nd century B.C. and that Sangam literature dates back to the same period.”

[20] George L. Hart III, The Poems of Ancient Tamil, U of California P, 1975.

[21] Iḷaṅkōvaṭikaḷ (1. 1. 1965). Shilappadikaram: (The Ankle Bracelet) (на језику: енглески). New Directions Publishing. ISBN 9780811200011.

[22] Irayanaar Agapporul dated to c 750 AD first mentioned the Sangam legends. An inscription of the early tenth century AD mentions the achievements of the early Pandya kings of establishing a Sangam in Madurai. See K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, A History of South India. Oxford University Press. 1955. стр. 105. .

[23] "The latest limit of Ettutokai and Pattupattu may be placed around 700 AD...." – Vaiyapuri Pillai, History of Tamil language and literature. стр. 38.

[24] "...the Tamil language of these brief records achieved a flowering during the first centuries of the Common Era, culminating in the emergence of a poetic corpus of very high quality [...] To this corpus the name sangam poetry was added soon afterwards...." Burton Stein, A History of India. Blackwell. 1998. стр. 90.

[25] See K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, . Oxford University Press. 1955.

[26] Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India – Abraham, Shinu Anna, Asian Perspectives – 42 (2): 207–223,,University of Hawaii Press

[27] Morality and Ethics in Public Life by Ravindra Kumar, стр. 92

[28] Essays on Indian Society by Raj Kumar, стр. 71

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