Akutno oštećenje kičmene moždine — разлика између измена

Klasifikacija	D ICD-10: G95.9, S14, S24, S34, T06.0, T06.1, T09.3; MeSH: D013119; DiseasesDB: 12327;
Spoljašnji resursi	MedlinePlus: 001066; eMedicine: emerg/553 neuro/711 pmr/182 pmr/183 orthoped/425;

Akutno oštećenje kičmene moždine
Akutno oštećenje kičmene moždine
	MRI preloma sa dislokacijom prčljena i kompresiom kičmene moždine
Specijalnosti	Neurohirurgija
Tipovi	Komplena, parcijalna.
Dijagnostički metod	Klinički simptomi i slikovne metote
Lečenje	Konzervativni i hirurški
Frekvencija	12.000 slučajeva godišnje u SAD
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Верзија на датум 14. децембар 2018. у 12:28

Akutno oštećenje kičmene moždine su transekcije kičmene moždine, koje mogu biti komplente i parcijalne. Kod kompletnog oblika oštećene su sve strukture određenih segmenata kičmene moždine, dok su kod parcijalnog oštećenja zahvaćene samo određene strukture u transverzalnim nivoima kičmene moždine..

Najčešći uzroci akutnog oštećenja kičmene moždine su trauma, metastazni ekstraduralni tumori, akutni mijelitisi (mijelo-patije), infarkt kičmene moždine koji nastaje usled tromboze prednje spinalne arterije, hematomijelija, subduralna ili epiduralna hemoragija.

Istorijat bolesti

Više od nekoliko hiljada godina unazad poznate su teške posledice akutnog oštećenja kičmene moždine, kada rve pisane tragove nalazimo u drevnom egipatskom Edvin Smith Papirus iz 2500. godine pre nove ere, u kome postoji opis povrede kičmene moždine, za koju se kaže da se „ne leči".^[3]

Hindu tekstovi iz 1800. godine pre nove ere pominju i SCI i opisuju tehnike trakcije (istezanja) kako bi se ispravila oštećena kičma.^[3]

Grčki lekar Hipokrat, rođen u petom veku pre nove ere, opisao je oštećenja kičmene moždine u svom Hipokratovom korpusu i izumeo uređaje za vuču kako bi ispravio dislocirane pršljenove.^[4]

Aulus Cornelius Celsus, rođen 30. g. p.n.e., piše da povreda kičme rezultira brzom smrću.^[3]

U drugom veku grčki lekara Galen eksperimentisao je na majmuna i utvrdio da je horizontalno rezanje kroz kičmenu moždinu dovelo do gubitka svih senzacija i kretanja ispod nivoa reza.^[5]

Grčki lekar iz sedmog veka Paul Aegina opisao je hirurške tehnike za lečenje polomljenih pršljenova uklanjanjem fragmenata kostiju, kao operaciju smanjenja pritiska na kičmu.^[3]

Mali medicinski napredak je u ovoj oblasti ostvaren je u srednjem veku u Evropi; sve dok u renesansi nisu na crtežima prikazani anatomske strukture kičme i njenih živaca, od starne Leonarda da Vincija i Andreasa Vesaliusa.^[4]

Prvi koji je pacijentu uklonio metak iz lumbalne kičme bio je1762. godine hirurg Andre Louis. Nakon ovog zahvata pacijent je povratio kretanje u nogama.^[4]

Godine 1829. hirurg Gilpin Smit obavio je uspešnu laminektomiju koja je poboljšala osećaj pacijenta.^[6]

Međutim, ideja da je SCI neizlečiva ostala je dominantna sve do početka 20. veka [146] Godine 1934. stopa smrtnosti u prve dve godine nakon povrede kičme bila je preko 80%, uglavnom zbog infekcija urinarnog trakta.^[7]

Tek u drugoj polovini 20. veka razvoj slikovnih metoda u radiologiji, operativnih metoda u hirurgiji, medicinskoj nezi i rehabilitacionoj medicini doprineo je značajnom poboljšanju terapije oštećenja kičmene moždine.^[8] Na dalji uspeh u lečenjuuticalo je i stvaranje službi hitnih medicinskih usluga za profesionalni i bezbedan transport ljudi u bolnicu jer je poboljšao ishod bolesti počev od sedamdesetih godina 20. veka.^[9] Ova i druga poboljšanja u nezi i praćenju bolesnika rezultovala su od 1940. godine povećanim trajanjem života ljudi sa oštećenjem kičmene moždine; vremena preživljavanja (koje je poboljšano za oko 2.000 %.^[10]

Sindrom kompletne transekcije kičmene moždine

Sindrom kompletne transekcije kičmene moždine uzrokuju mnogobrojni činioci, a najčešći je to prelom kičmenog stuba i ishemija.^[11] Može biti kompletna i parcijalna, npr. grudnih i slabinskih segmenata kičmene moždine:

Kompletna transekcija kičmene moždine

Kompletna transekcija KM manifestuje se spinalnim šokom, pored koga kliničkom slikom dominiraju i sledeći znaci i simptomi: lezije kičmene moždine nastaje:

respiratorna nsuficijencija,
kvadriplegija,
arefleksija i anestezija ispod nivoa lezije,
neurogeni šok sa hipotenzijom i kompenzatornom tahikardijom,
gubitak sfinkterijalne kontrole,
distenzija trbuha zbog paralitičkog ileusa.

Može se razviti Hornerov sindrom, te anhidroza zbog lezije simpatikusa.

Parcijalna lezija grudnih i slabinskih segmenata kičmene moždine — manifestuju se spinalnim šokom. Pri tome se ne moraju razviti respiratorna simptomatologija.

Prednji spinalni sindrom

Prednji spinalni sindrom uključuje kompletnu motornu paralizu i gubitak osećaja bola i temperature ispod nivoa lezije. Ukoliko je očuvana stražnja kolumna dodir, vibracija i propriocepcija su očuvani.

Ovaj sindrom je uzrokovan kompresijom prednje spinalne arterije, sa pratećom ishemijom. Udružen je sa rasprskavajućim frakturama kičme (burst fracture), spinalnih kolumni i retropulzijom fragmenata, kao i posledičnom aksijalnom kompresijom.^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15] ^[16]^[17]^[18]

Centralni spinalni sindrom

Centralni spinalni sindrom uzrokovan je oštećenjem kortikospinalnog puta. Karakteriše ga slabost, (više u gornjim nego u donjim udovima) koja je više izražena u distalnim delovima ekstremiteta.

Udružen je sa hiperekstenzionim povredama kod pacijenata sa spondilozom ili kompresivnom stenozom cervikalnog kanala. Ekstenzija uzrokuje zabacivanje flavuma i uklještenje kičmene moždine, što je najverovatnije glavni uzrok ovog sindroma.^[11]

Akutne parcijalne transverzalne lezija kičmene moždine

Brown-Séquard-ov sindrom

Sindrom hemisekcije kičmene moždine, ili Brown-Sequard, ili akutna parcijalna transverzalna lezija kičmene moždine uključuje povredu kičmene moždine samo na jednom mjestu. Hemisekcija kičmene moždine najčešće nastaje kao posledica direktnih trauma (npr ubod nožem).^[11]

Nastaje u izuzetnim slučajevima i karakteriše se slabošću udova i oštećenjem dubokog senzibiliteta na strani lezije (prekid ipsilateralnih puteva-piramidnog i zadnjih funikula). Na suprotnoj strani postoji neosetljivost za bol, toplo i hladno (oštećenje ukrštenog spinotala-mičnog puta).

Hornerov sindrom

Hornerov sindrom se manifestuje miozom, ptozom, enoftalmuson i anhidrozom. Uzrok je oštećenje vratnog simpatikusa.^[19] ^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]

Sindrom posteroinferiorne cerebelarne arterije

Sindrom posteroinferiorne cerebelarne arterije se manifestuje različitim konstelacijama uključuje disfagiju, disfoniju, štucanje, vrtoglavicu, povraćanje, cerebelarnu ataksiju. Može biti rezultat visoke cervikalne lezije, a može biti uzrokovan i okluzijom vertebralne arterije sa diskokacijom i hiperekstenzijom cervikalne kičme.^[11]

Sindrom kaude ekvine i medularnog konusa

Sindrom kaude ekvine (lat. cauda equina syndrome - CES) manifestuje se određenom grupom simptoma, kao što su:

nesimetričan radikularni bol u perineumu,
gubitak osećaja u slabinskim dermatomimima S1, S2 i S3 (fenomen jahačih pantalona),
radikularni bol u udovima,
oštećenje sfinktera sa inkontinencijom ili retencijom mokrenja i stolice,
motorna slabost u udovima sa hiporefleksijom ili arefleksijom.^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34]

Vaskularne lezije kičmene moždine

Izvori

^ ^а ^б ^в ATLS - Advanced Trauma Life Support - Student Course Manual (10th ed.). American College of Surgeons. 2018. pp. 129–144. ISBN 78-0-9968262-3-5
^ „Spinal Cord Injury Facts and Figures at a Glance” (PDF). 2012. Приступљено 16. 5. 2018.
^ ^а ^б ^в ^г Lifshutz, J.; Colohan, A. (2004). "A brief history of therapy for traumatic spinal cord injury". Neurosurg Focus. 16 (1 E5): E5. doi:10.3171/foc.2004.16.1.6. PMID 15264783
^ ^а ^б ^в Holtz & Levi 2010, стр. 3–4.
^ Holtz & Levi 2010, стр. 5.
^ Holtz & Levi 2010, стр. 6.
^ Fallah, Dance & Burns 2012, стр. 235.
^ Morganti-Kossmann, Raghupathi & Maas 2012, стр. 229.
^ Sabharwal 2013, стр. 35.
^ Holtz & Levi 2010, стр. 7.
^ ^а ^б ^в ^г ^д Nieuwenhuys R, Voogd JC et al. The Human Central Nervous System. Springer, Berlin, New York; 2008.
^ Wilting J, Muller TS, Ebensperger C, et al. Development of the vertebral column: morphogenesis and genes. In: Vogel R, Fanghaenel J, Giebel J, eds. Aspects of terminology. Marburg, Germany: Tectum Verlag, 1996.
^ Seller MJ, Nevin NC. Periconceptional vitamin supplementation and the prevention of neural tube defects in South-East England and Northern Ireland. J Med Genetics 1984; 21:325–30.
^ Iqbal MM. Prevention of neural tube defects by periconceptional use of folic acid. Pediatr Rev 2000; 21(2):58–66.
^ Moore K, Persaud TVN. The developing human: clinially oriented embryology, 6th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1998.
^ Nolting D, Hansen B, Keeling J, Kjaer I. Prenatal development of the normal human vertebral corpora in different segments of the spine. Spine 1998; 23(21):2265–71.
^ Capecchi MR. Function of homeobox genes in skeletal development. Ann NY Acad Sci 1996; 785:34–7.
^ Gasser RF. Evidence that sclerotomal cells do not migrate medially during normal embryonic development of the rat. Am J Anat 1979; 154:509–24.
^ Réthelyi M, Light AR, Perl ER. Synaptic ultrastructureof functionally and morphologically characterized neurons of the superficial spinal dorsal horn of the cat. J Neuroscience. 1989; 9:1846–63.
^ Bennett GJ, Abdelmoumene M, Hayashi et al. Spinal cord layer I neurons with axon collaterals that generate local arbors. Brain Res 1981; 209:421–6.
^ Mannen H, Sugiura Y. Reconstruction of neurons of dorsal horn proper using Golgi-stained serial sections. J Comp Neurol 1976; 168:303–12.
^ Romanes GJ. The motor columns of the spinal cord. Prog Brain Res 1964; 11:93–116.
^ Schoenen J. Dendritic organization of the human spinal cord: The motoneurons. J Comp Neurol 1982b; 211:226–47.
^ Naderi S, Ture U, Pait TG. History of the spinal cord localization. Neurosurg Focus 2004; 16:E15.
^ Brown AG. Organization in the spinal cord. The anatomy and physiology of identified neurons New York: Springer, 1981.
^ Schoenen J, Faull RLM. Spinal cord: Cytoarchitectural, dendroarchitectural and myeloarchiotectural organization, In: Paxinos G, ed.The Human Nervous System. San Diego: Academic Press,1990; 19–53.
^ Brown AG. Nerve cells and nervous systems. Springer Verlag, 1991.
^ Bican O, Minagar A, Pruitt AA. The spinal cord: A review of functional neuroanatomy. Neurol Clin 2013; 31:1–18.
^ Tubbs RS, Loukas M, Slappey JB et al. Clinical anatomy of the C1 dorsal root, ganglion, and ramus: A review and anatomical study. Clin Anat 2007; 20:624–67.
^ O’Rahilly R. Human embryology and teratology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
^ Slack JMW. We have a morphogen!. Nature 1987; 327:553–4.
^ Tabin CJ. Retinoids, homeoboxes, and growth factors: toward molecular models for limb development. Cell 1991; 66:199–217.
^ Moore K, Persaud TVN. The developing human: clinially oriented embryology, 6th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1998.
^ Nolting D, Hansen B, Keeling J, Kjaer I. Prenatal development of the normal human vertebral corpora in different segments of the spine. Spine 1998; 23(21):2265–71.

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Fallah, A.; Dance, D.; Burns, A.S. (29. 10. 2012). „Rehabilitation of the individual with spinal cord injury”. Ур.: Fehlings, M.G.; Vaccaro, A.R.; Maxwell B. Essentials of Spinal Cord Injury: Basic Research to Clinical Practice. Thieme. ISBN 978-1-60406-727-9.
Frontera, W.R.; Silver, J.K.; Rizzo, T.D. Jr. (5. 9. 2014). Essentials of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-22272-3.
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Spoljašnje veze

Akutno oštećenje kičmene moždine на сајту Curlie

[ATLS2018-1] а ^б ^в ATLS - Advanced Trauma Life Support - Student Course Manual (10th ed.). American College of Surgeons. 2018. pp. 129–144. ISBN 78-0-9968262-3-5

[NS2012-2] „Spinal Cord Injury Facts and Figures at a Glance” (PDF). 2012. Приступљено 16. 5. 2018.

[142.-3] а ^б ^в ^г Lifshutz, J.; Colohan, A. (2004). "A brief history of therapy for traumatic spinal cord injury". Neurosurg Focus. 16 (1 E5): E5. doi:10.3171/foc.2004.16.1.6. PMID 15264783

[FOOTNOTEHoltzLevi20103–4-4] а ^б ^в Holtz & Levi 2010, стр. 3–4.

[FOOTNOTEHoltzLevi20105-5] Holtz & Levi 2010, стр. 5.

[FOOTNOTEHoltzLevi20106-6] Holtz & Levi 2010, стр. 6.

[FOOTNOTEFallahDanceBurns2012235-7] Fallah, Dance & Burns 2012, стр. 235.

[FOOTNOTEMorganti-KossmannRaghupathiMaas2012229-8] Morganti-Kossmann, Raghupathi & Maas 2012, стр. 229.

[FOOTNOTESabharwal201335-9] Sabharwal 2013, стр. 35.

[FOOTNOTEHoltzLevi20107-10] Holtz & Levi 2010, стр. 7.

[44.-11] а ^б ^в ^г ^д Nieuwenhuys R, Voogd JC et al. The Human Central Nervous System. Springer, Berlin, New York; 2008.

[15.-12] Wilting J, Muller TS, Ebensperger C, et al. Development of the vertebral column: morphogenesis and genes. In: Vogel R, Fanghaenel J, Giebel J, eds. Aspects of terminology. Marburg, Germany: Tectum Verlag, 1996.

[16.-13] Seller MJ, Nevin NC. Periconceptional vitamin supplementation and the prevention of neural tube defects in South-East England and Northern Ireland. J Med Genetics 1984; 21:325–30.

[17.-14] Iqbal MM. Prevention of neural tube defects by periconceptional use of folic acid. Pediatr Rev 2000; 21(2):58–66.

[11.-15] Moore K, Persaud TVN. The developing human: clinially oriented embryology, 6th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1998.

[12.-16] Nolting D, Hansen B, Keeling J, Kjaer I. Prenatal development of the normal human vertebral corpora in different segments of the spine. Spine 1998; 23(21):2265–71.

[13.-17] Capecchi MR. Function of homeobox genes in skeletal development. Ann NY Acad Sci 1996; 785:34–7.

[14.-18] Gasser RF. Evidence that sclerotomal cells do not migrate medially during normal embryonic development of the rat. Am J Anat 1979; 154:509–24.

[19] Réthelyi M, Light AR, Perl ER. Synaptic ultrastructureof functionally and morphologically characterized neurons of the superficial spinal dorsal horn of the cat. J Neuroscience. 1989; 9:1846–63.

[20] Bennett GJ, Abdelmoumene M, Hayashi et al. Spinal cord layer I neurons with axon collaterals that generate local arbors. Brain Res 1981; 209:421–6.

[21] Mannen H, Sugiura Y. Reconstruction of neurons of dorsal horn proper using Golgi-stained serial sections. J Comp Neurol 1976; 168:303–12.

[22] Romanes GJ. The motor columns of the spinal cord. Prog Brain Res 1964; 11:93–116.

[23] Schoenen J. Dendritic organization of the human spinal cord: The motoneurons. J Comp Neurol 1982b; 211:226–47.

[24] Naderi S, Ture U, Pait TG. History of the spinal cord localization. Neurosurg Focus 2004; 16:E15.

[25] Brown AG. Organization in the spinal cord. The anatomy and physiology of identified neurons New York: Springer, 1981.

[26] Schoenen J, Faull RLM. Spinal cord: Cytoarchitectural, dendroarchitectural and myeloarchiotectural organization, In: Paxinos G, ed.The Human Nervous System. San Diego: Academic Press,1990; 19–53.

[27] Brown AG. Nerve cells and nervous systems. Springer Verlag, 1991.

[28] Bican O, Minagar A, Pruitt AA. The spinal cord: A review of functional neuroanatomy. Neurol Clin 2013; 31:1–18.

[29] Tubbs RS, Loukas M, Slappey JB et al. Clinical anatomy of the C1 dorsal root, ganglion, and ramus: A review and anatomical study. Clin Anat 2007; 20:624–67.

[30] O’Rahilly R. Human embryology and teratology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

[31] Slack JMW. We have a morphogen!. Nature 1987; 327:553–4.

[32] Tabin CJ. Retinoids, homeoboxes, and growth factors: toward molecular models for limb development. Cell 1991; 66:199–217.

[33] Moore K, Persaud TVN. The developing human: clinially oriented embryology, 6th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1998.

[34] Nolting D, Hansen B, Keeling J, Kjaer I. Prenatal development of the normal human vertebral corpora in different segments of the spine. Spine 1998; 23(21):2265–71.

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 == Izvori ==
 {{reflist}}
+== Literatura ==
+{{refbegin|30em}}
+* {{cite book |last=Adams |ref=harv |first=J.G. |title=Emergency Medicine: Clinical Essentials |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpoH-KYE93IC |date=5 September 2012 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=1-4557-3394-6}}
+*{{cite book|last=Augustine|first=J.J.|editor=Campbell, J.R.|chapter=Spinal trauma|title=International Trauma Life Support for Emergency Care Providers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ubkuAAAAQBAJ|date=21 November 2011|publisher=Pearson Education|ref=harv|isbn=978-0-13-300408-3}}
+*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Bigelow|first1=S.|last2=Medzon|first2=R.|editors=Legome, E.; Shockley, L.W.|chapter=Injuries of the spine: Nerve|title=Trauma: A Comprehensive Emergency Medicine Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b-EaOBcBx7cC|date=16 June 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-50072-2}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=J. |first2=J.P. |last2=Wyatt |first3=R.N. |last3=Illingworth |last4=Clancy|first4= M.J.|last5= Munro|first5= P. |title=Oxford American Handbook of Emergency Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=csdGgwKCIQUC |date=6 June 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press|ref=harv|isbn=978-0-19-977948-2}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Cameron |ref=harv |first1=P. |first2=G. |last2=Jelinek |first3=A.M. |last3=Kelly |last4=Brown |first4=A.F.T. |last5=Little |first5=M. |title=Textbook of Adult Emergency Medicine: Expert Consult |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gP1sAwAAQBAJ |date=1 April 2014 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences UK |isbn=978-0-7020-5438-9}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Cifu |first1=D.X. |last2=Lew |first2=H.L. |title=Handbook of Polytrauma Care and Rehabilitation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ReadAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |date=10 September 2013 |publisher=Demos Medical Publishing |isbn=978-1-61705-100-5 |ref=harv}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Cortois |first1=F. |last2=Charvier |first2=K. |ref=harv |editor1=Vodusek, D.B. |editor2=Boller, F. |chapter=Sexual dysfunction in patients with spinal cord lesions |title=Neurology of Sexual and Bladder Disorders: Handbook of Clinical Neurology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MBOdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 |date=21 May 2015 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-0-444-63254-8}}
+*{{cite book|last=DeKoning|first=E.P.|chapter= Cervical spine injuries|editors=Sherman, S.; Weber, J.; Schindlbeck, M.; Patwari, R.|title=Clinical Emergency Medicine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MYwBAwAAQBAJ|date=10 January 2014|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|ref=harv|isbn=978-0-07-179461-9}}
+* {{cite book |last=Elliott |first=S. |ref=harv |editor1=Bono, C.M. |editor2=Cardenas, D.D. |editor3=Frost, F.S. |chapter=Sexual dysfunction in women with spinal cord injury |title=Spinal Cord Medicine, Second Edition: Principles & Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2n5hTAxdTYC&pg=PT1521 |date=19 March 2010 |publisher=Demos Medical Publishing |isbn=978-1-935281-77-1|pages=429–38}}
+* {{cite book|last=Field-Fote|first= E.|editor= Field-Fote, E.|title=Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation|chapter=Spinal cord injury: An overview|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRRhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA527|date=26 March 2009|publisher=F.A. Davis|isbn=978-0-8036-2319-4|ref=harv}}
+* {{cite book |last=Fallah |first1=A. |last2=Dance |first2=D. |last3=Burns |first3=A.S. |ref=harv |editor1=Fehlings, M.G. |editor2=Vaccaro, A.R. |editor3=Maxwell B. |chapter=Rehabilitation of the individual with spinal cord injury |title=Essentials of Spinal Cord Injury: Basic Research to Clinical Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQC-sQOCzhQC |date=29 October 2012 |publisher=Thieme |isbn=978-1-60406-727-9}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Frontera |ref=harv |first1=W.R. |first2=J.K. |last2=Silver |first3=T.D. Jr. |last3=Rizzo |title=Essentials of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1sXsAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA856 |date=5 September 2014 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-323-22272-3}}
+*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Fulk|first1=G.D.|last2=Behrman|first2=A.L.|last3=Schmitz|first3=T.J.|contribution=Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury |editor=O'Sullivan S |editor2=Schmitz T|title=Physical Rehabilitation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URLTAQAAQBAJ|date=23 July 2013|publisher=F.A. Davis|isbn=978-0-8036-4058-0}}
+* {{cite book|last=Hammell|ref=harv|first=K.W.|title=Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVn5BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA289|date=11 December 2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4899-4451-1}}
+* {{cite book |last=Harvey |first=L. |title=Management of Spinal Cord Injuries: A Guide for Physiotherapists |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FujsWb3H2UEC&pg=PA30 |year=2008 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=0-443-06858-5 |ref=harv}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Holtz  |first1=A. |first2=R. |last2=Levi |title=Spinal Cord Injury |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvCqdwWwGRsC&pg=PA63 |date=6 July 2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=harv|isbn=978-0-19-970681-5}}
+*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Ilyas|first1=A.|last2=Rehman|first2=S.|title=Contemporary Surgical Management of Fractures and Complications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dA6rL081vEsC&pg=PA388|date=31 March 2013|publisher=JP Medical Ltd|isbn=978-93-5025-964-1}}
+*{{cite book|last1=Marx|first1=J.|last2=Walls|first2=R.|last3=Hockberger|first3=R.|title=Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uggC0i_jXAsC&pg=PA1420|date=1 August 2013|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-1-4557-4987-4|ref=harv}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=E. |last2=Marini |first2=I. |ref=harv |editor=Marini, I. |editor2=Stebnicki, M.A. |chapter=Sexuality and spinal cord injury counseling implications |title=The Psychological and Social Impact of Illness and Disability, 6th Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWCkby69fXAC&pg=PA148 |date=24 February 2012 |publisher=Springer Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-8261-0655-1}}
+*{{cite book|last=Moore|first=K.|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|year=2006|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=0-7817-3639-0|ref=harv}}<!--location=Philadelphia-->
+* {{cite book |last1=Morganti-Kossmann |ref=harv |first1=C. |first2=R. |last2=Raghupathi |first3=A. |last3=Maas |title=Traumatic Brain and Spinal Cord Injury: Challenges and Developments |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3TmLKOED94C |date=19 July 2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00743-7}}
+*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Namdari|first1=S.|last2=Pill|first2=S.|last3=Mehta|first3=S.|title=Orthopedic Secrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q26PBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA297|date=21 October 2014|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-17285-1}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Newman |ref=harv |first1=M.F. |first2=L.A. |last2=Fleisher |first3=M.P. |last3=Fink |title=Perioperative Medicine: Managing for Outcome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CshZr9vGSYkC&pg=PA348 |year=2008 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=1-4160-2456-5}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Peitzman |first1=A.B. |last2=Fabian |first2=T.C. |last3=Rhodes |first3=M. |last4=Schwab |first4=C.W. |last5=Yealy |first5=D.M. |title=The Trauma Manual: Trauma and Acute Care Surgery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glFVZRUmkTYC |year=2012 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-1-4511-1679-3 |ref=harv}}
+*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Pellock|first1=J.M.|last2=Myer|first2=E.C.|title=Neurologic Emergencies in Infancy and Childhood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t0EfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124|date=22 October 2013|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-1-4831-9392-2}}
+* {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Roos|first=K.L.|title=Emergency Neurology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJ8RwwKT-DkC&pg=PA249|date=7 March 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-88585-8}}
+* {{cite book |last=Sabharwal |ref=harv |first=S. |title=Essentials of Spinal Cord Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uaJdAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 |date=10 December 2013 |publisher=Demos Medical Publishing |isbn=978-1-61705-075-6}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Sabharwal |first=S. |editors=Frontera, W.R.; Silver, J.K.; Rizzo, T.D. Jr. |chapter=Spinal cord injury (Cervical) |title=Essentials of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1sXsAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA856 |date=5 September 2014 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-323-22272-3 |ref=harv}}
+*{{cite book|last1=Shah|first1=K.H.|last2=Egan|first2=D.|last3=Quaas|first3=J.|title=Essential Emergency Trauma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5d4PAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT279|date=17 February 2012|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|ref=harv|isbn=978-1-4511-5318-7}}
+*{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Snell|first=R.S.|chapter=The spinal cord and the ascending and descending tracts|title=Clinical Neuroanatomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ABPmvroyrD0C&pg=PA170|year=2010|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-0-7817-9427-5}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Teufack |first1=S. |last2=Harrop |first2=J.S. |last3=Ashwini |first3=D.S. |ref=harv |editor1=Fehlings, M.G. |editor2=Vaccaro, A.R. |editor3=Maxwell B. |chapter=Spinal Cord Injury Classification |title=Essentials of Spinal Cord Injury: Basic Research to Clinical Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQC-sQOCzhQC |date=29 October 2012 |publisher=Thieme |isbn=978-1-60406-727-9}}
+*{{cite book|last1=Weiss|first1=J.M. |chapter=Spinal cord injury|editors= Weiss, L.D.; Weiss, J.M.; Pobre, T.|title=Oxford American Handbook of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aFuYCAiW0hsC|date=15 March 2010|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|ref=harv|isbn=978-0-19-970999-1}}
+*{{cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=J.P.|last2=Illingworth|first2=R.N.|last3=Graham|first3=C.A.|last4=Hogg| first4=K.|last5= Robertson|first5= C|last6=Clancy|first6= M.|title=Oxford Handbook of Emergency Medicine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VFpIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA384|date=9 February 2012|publisher=OUP Oxford|ref=harv|isbn=978-0-19-101605-9}}
+{{refend}}
 == Spoljašnje veze ==
 * {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Neurological_Disorders/Trauma_and_Injuries/Spinal_Cord_Injury}}