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#Преусмери [[Отров]]
'''Toksin''' je [[otrov]]na supstanca koju proizvode žive ćelije ili organizmi;<ref>{{DorlandsDict|eight/000109718|toxin}}</ref><ref name="urltoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/toxin |title=toxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |website= |accessdate=13 December 2008}}</ref> synthetic [[Biocide|toxicants]] created by artificial processes are thus excluded. The term was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919),<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oWhqhK1cE-gC&pg=PA6|title=Endotoxin in Health and Disease|first=Helmut|last=Brade|year=1999|publisher=CRC Press|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0824719449}}</ref> derived from the word [[toxic]].<ref>{{OEtymD|toxin}}</ref>

Toxins can be [[small molecule]]s, [[peptide]]s, or [[protein]]s that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by [[Biological tissue|body tissues]] interacting with biological [[macromolecule]]s such as [[enzyme]]s or [[Receptor (biochemistry)|cellular receptors]]. Toxins vary greatly in their [[toxicity]], ranging from usually minor (such as a [[bee]] [[Stinger|sting]]) to almost immediately deadly (such as [[botulinum toxin]]).

==Terminology==
Toxins are often distinguished from other chemical agents by their method of production—the word toxin does not specify method of delivery (compare with [[venom]] and the broader meaning of [[poison]]—all substances that can also cause disturbances to organisms). It simply means it is a biologically produced poison.

According to an [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] review of the [[Biological Weapons Convention]], "Toxins are poisonous products of organisms; unlike biological agents, they are inanimate and not capable of reproducing themselves", and "Since the signing of the Constitution, there have been no disputes among the parties regarding the definition of biological agents or toxins".<ref name="urlThe Biological Weapons Convention – An overview">{{cite web |url=http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/57JNPA |title=The Biological Weapons Convention – An overview |website= |accessdate=13 December 2008}}</ref>

According to [[Title 18 of the United States Code]], "... the term "toxin" means the [[Toxicity|toxic]] material or product of [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[microorganism]]s (including, but not limited to, [[bacteria]], [[virus]]es, [[fungi]], [[rickettsiae]] or [[protozoa]]), or infectious substances, or a [[Recombinant DNA|recombinant]] or synthesized molecule, whatever their origin and method of production..."<ref name="urlU.S. Code">{{cite web |url=http://law2.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+235+1++()%20%20AND%20((18)%20ADJ%20USC)%3ACITE%20AND%20(USC%20w/10%20(209))%3ACITE |title=U.S. Code |website= |accessdate=13 December 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721042611/http://law2.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+235+1++%28%29%20%20AND%20%28%2818%29%20ADJ%20USC%29%3ACITE%20AND%20%28USC%20w%2F10%20%28209%29%29%3ACITE |archivedate=21 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

A rather informal terminology of individual toxins relates them to the anatomical location where their effects are most notable:
* [[Hemotoxin]], causes destruction of [[red blood cells]] ([[hemolysis]])
* [[Phototoxin]], causes dangerous photosensitivity

On a broader scale, toxins may be classified as either [[exotoxin]]s, being excreted by an organism, or [[endotoxin]]s, that are released mainly when bacteria are [[lysis|lysed]].

== Biotoxins ==
The term "biotoxin" is sometimes used to explicitly confirm the biological origin.<ref name="urlbiotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biotoxin |title=biotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |website= |accessdate=13 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{DorlandsDict|one/000012874|biotoxin}}</ref> Biotoxins can be further classified, for example, as [[mycotoxin|fungal biotoxins]], [[microbial toxin]]s, [[phytotoxin|plant biotoxins]], or animal biotoxins.

Toxins produced by [[microorganism]]s are important [[virulence]] determinants responsible for microbial [[pathogenicity]] and/or evasion of the host [[immune response]].<ref name= ProftT>{{cite book |veditors = Proft T | year=2009 |title=Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends | publisher=Caister Academic Press | isbn= 978-1-904455-44-8}}</ref>

Biotoxins vary greatly in purpose and mechanism, and can be highly complex (the [[venom]] of the [[cone snail]] contains dozens of small [[protein]]s, each targeting a specific nerve channel or receptor), or relatively small protein.

Biotoxins in nature have two primary functions:
* [[Predation]], such as in the [[spider]], [[snake]], [[scorpion]], [[jellyfish]], and [[wasp]]
* Defense as in the [[bee]], [[ant]], [[termite]], [[honey bee]], [[wasp]], and [[poison dart frog]]

Some of the more well known types of biotoxins include:
* [[Cyanotoxin]]s, produced by [[cyanobacteria]]
* [[Dinotoxin]]s, produced by [[dinoflagellate]]s
* [[Necrosis|Necrotoxins]] cause necrosis (i.e., death) in the cells they encounter and destroy all types of [[biological tissue|tissue]]. Necrotoxins spread through the bloodstream. In humans, [[skin]] and [[muscle]] tissues are most sensitive to necrotoxins. Organisms that possess necrotoxins include:
** The [[brown recluse spider|brown recluse]] or "fiddle back" spider
** Most [[rattlesnake]]s and [[vipers]] produce [[phospholipase]] and various [[trypsin]]-like [[serine proteases]]
** [[Bitis arietans|Puff adder]]
** [[Necrotizing fasciitis]] (caused by the "flesh eating" bacterium ''[[Streptococcus pyogenes]]'') – produces a [[pore-forming toxin|pore forming toxin]]
* [[Neurotoxin]]s primarily affect the nervous systems of animals. The group neurotoxins generally consists of [[ion channel toxins]] that disrupt ion channel conductance. Organisms that possess neurotoxins include:
** The [[Latrodectus|black widow]] spider.
** Most [[scorpion]]s
** The [[box jellyfish]]
** [[Elapidae|Elapid]] snakes
** The [[cone snail]]
** The [[Blue-ringed octopus]]
** [[Venomous fish]]
** [[Frogs]]
** ''[[Palythoa]]'' [[coral]]
** Various different types of [[algae]], [[cyanobacteria]] and [[dinoflagellates]]
* [[Myotoxin]]s are small, basic [[peptide]]s found in [[snake]] and [[lizard]] [[Venom (poison)|venoms]], They cause muscle tissue damage by a non enzymatic receptor based mechanism. Organisms that possess myotoxins include:
** [[rattlesnake]]s
** [[eastern bearded dragon]]
* [[Cytotoxicity|Cytotoxins]] are toxic at the level of individual cells, either in a non-specific fashion or only in certain types of living cells:
** [[Ricin]], from [[castor bean]]s
** [[Apitoxin]], from [[honey bee]]s
** [[T-2 mycotoxin]], from certain toxic [[mushroom]]s
** [[Cardiotoxin III]], from [[Chinese cobra]]

==Environmental toxins==
{{See also|Environmental toxicology}}
The term "environmental toxin" can sometimes explicitly include synthetic contaminants<ref name="pmid14977703">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grigg J | title = Environmental toxins; their impact on children's health | journal = Arch. Dis. Child. | volume = 89 | issue = 3 | pages = 244–50 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 14977703 | pmc = 1719840 | doi = 10.1136/adc.2002.022202 }}</ref> such as industrial [[pollutant]]s and other artificially made [[Toxicity|toxic]] substances. As this contradicts most formal definitions of the term "toxin", it is important to confirm what the researcher means when encountering the term outside of microbiological contexts.

Environmental toxins from [[food chain]]s that may be dangerous to human health include:
* [[Paralytic shellfish poisoning]] (PSP)<ref name=iviv>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vale C, Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Romarís XM, Arévalo F, Botana AM, Botana LM | title = In vitro and in vivo evaluation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin potency and the influence of the pH of extraction | journal = Anal. Chem. | volume = 80 | issue = 5 | pages = 1770–76 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18232710 | doi = 10.1021/ac7022266 }}</ref><ref name=dlpsp>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Oikawa H, Fujita T, Saito K, Satomi M, Yano Y| title = Difference in the level of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin accumulation between the crabs Telmessus acutidens and Charybdis japonica collected in Onahama, Fukushima Prefecture | journal = Fisheries Science | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 395–403 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1111/j.1444-2906.2007.01347.x}}</ref><ref name=psptp>{{cite journal | vauthors = Abouabdellah R, Taleb H, Bennouna A, Erler K, Chafik A, Moukrim A | title = Paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin profile of mussels Perna perna from southern Atlantic coasts of Morocco | journal = Toxicon | volume = 51 | issue = 5 | pages = 780–86 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18237757 | doi = 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.12.004 }}</ref>
* [[Amnesic shellfish poisoning]] (ASP)<ref name=aspt>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang L, Liang XF, Zhang WB, Mai KS, Huang Y, Shen D | title = Amnesic shellfish poisoning toxin stimulates the transcription of CYP1A possibly through AHR and ARNT in the liver of red sea bream Pagrus major | journal = Mar. Pollut. Bull. | volume = 58 | issue = 11 | pages = 1643–48 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19665739 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.07.004 }}</ref><ref name=ocfl>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Wang L, Vaquero E, Leão JM, Gogo-Martínez A, Rodríguez Vázquez JA | title = Optimization of conditions for the liquid chromatographic-electrospray lonization-mass spectrometric analysis of amnesic shellfish poisoning toxins | journal = [[Chromatographia]] | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = S231–35 | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1007/BF02490333}}</ref>
* [[Diarrheal shellfish poisoning]] (DSP)<ref name=dmto>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mouratidou T, Kaniou-Grigoriadou I, Samara C, Kouimtzis T | title = Detection of the marine toxin okadaic acid in mussels during a diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) episode in Thermaikos Gulf, Greece, using biological, chemical and immunological methods | journal = Sci. Total Environ. | volume = 366 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 894–904 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16815531 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.03.002 | bibcode = 2006ScTEn.366..894M }}</ref><ref name=ehed>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doucet E, Ross NN, Quilliam MA | title = Enzymatic hydrolysis of esterified diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins and pectenotoxins | journal = Anal Bioanal Chem | volume = 389 | issue = 1 | pages = 335–42 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17661021 | doi = 10.1007/s00216-007-1489-3 }}</ref>
* [[Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning]] (NSP)<ref name=nspb>{{cite journal | vauthors = Poli MA, Musser SM, Dickey RW, Eilers PP, Hall S | title = Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and brevetoxin metabolites: a case study from Florida | journal = Toxicon | volume = 38 | issue = 7 | pages = 981–93 | date = July 2000 | pmid = 10728835 | doi = 10.1016/S0041-0101(99)00191-9 }}</ref><ref name=bnba>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Morohashi A, Satake M, Murata K, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Yasumoto T| title = Brevetoxin B3, a new brevetoxin nalog isolated from the greenshell mussel perna canaliculus involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in new zealand | journal = [[Tetrahedron Letters]] | volume = 36 | issue = 49 | pages = 8995–98 | year = 1995 | doi = 10.1016/0040-4039(95)01969-O}}</ref><ref name=bigm>{{cite journal | vauthors = Morohashi A, Satake M, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Oshima Y, Yasumoto T | title = Brevetoxin B4 isolated from greenshell mussels Perna canaliculus, the major toxin involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in New Zealand | journal = Nat. Toxins | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 45–48 | date = 1999 | pmid = 10495465 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1522-7189(199903/04)7:2<45::AID-NT34>3.0.CO;2-H }}</ref>

===Finding information about toxins===
The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro.html|title=Environmental Health and Toxicology Information ? National Library of Medicine|author=|date=|website=sis.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> at the [[United States National Library of Medicine]] (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes access to toxins-related resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations. This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/|title=TOXNET|author=|date=|website=toxnet.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases that are available free of charge on the web.

[[TOXMAP]] is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET. TOXMAP uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]'s (EPA) [[Toxics Release Inventory]] and [[Superfund Basic Research Program]]s.

===Computational resources for prediction of toxic peptides and proteins===
One of the bottlenecks in peptide/protein-based therapy is their toxicity. Recently, ''in silico'' models for predicting toxicity of peptides and proteins, developed by [[Gajendra Pal Singh Raghava]]'s group,<ref name="pmid24058508">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gupta S, Kapoor P, Chaudhary K, Gautam A, Kumar R, Raghava GP | title = In silico approach for predicting toxicity of peptides and proteins | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | pages = e73957 | date = 2013 | pmid = 24058508 | pmc = 3772798 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0073957 | bibcode=2013PLoSO...873957G}}</ref> predict toxicity with reasonably good accuracy. The prediction models are based on machine learning technique and quantitative matrix using various properties of peptides. The prediction tool is freely accessible to public in the form of web server.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://crdd.osdd.net/raghava/toxinpred|title=ToxinPred|author=|date=|website=crdd.osdd.net}}</ref>

== Vidi još ==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[ArachnoServer]]
* [[Brevetoxin]]
* [[Cangitoxin]]
* [[Detoxification (alternative medicine)]]
* [[Excitotoxicity]]
* [[Insect toxin]]
* [[List of highly toxic gases]]
* [[Toxalbumin]]
* [[Toxicophore]], feature or group within a [[molecule]] that is thought to be responsible for its toxic properties.
* [[Toxin-antitoxin system]]
{{colend}}

== Reference ==
{{Reflist}}

== Spoljašnje veze ==
{{Commons category-lat|Toxin}}
* {{Britannica|601221|Toxin (biochemistry)}}
* -{[http://www.t3db.org/ T3DB: Toxin-target database]}-
* -{[https://web.archive.org/web/20080820090609/http://protchem.hunnu.edu.cn/toxin ATDB: Animal toxin database]}-
* -{[http://www.toxicology.org Society of Toxicology]}-
* -{[http://www.jvat.org.br The Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases]}-
* -{[https://web.archive.org/web/20110211134419/http://toxseek.nlm.nih.gov/ ToxSeek: Meta-search engine in toxicology and environmental health]}-
* -{[http://www.ecotoxmodels.org/ Website on Models & Ecotoxicology]}-

{{Authority control-lat}}

[[Категорија:Токсини]]
[[Категорија:Биолошка терминологија]]
[[Категорија:Токсикологија]]

Верзија на датум 23. мај 2019. у 01:19

Toksin je otrovna supstanca koju proizvode žive ćelije ili organizmi;[1][2] synthetic toxicants created by artificial processes are thus excluded. The term was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919),[3] derived from the word toxic.[4]

Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by body tissues interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors. Toxins vary greatly in their toxicity, ranging from usually minor (such as a bee sting) to almost immediately deadly (such as botulinum toxin).

Terminology

Toxins are often distinguished from other chemical agents by their method of production—the word toxin does not specify method of delivery (compare with venom and the broader meaning of poison—all substances that can also cause disturbances to organisms). It simply means it is a biologically produced poison.

According to an International Committee of the Red Cross review of the Biological Weapons Convention, "Toxins are poisonous products of organisms; unlike biological agents, they are inanimate and not capable of reproducing themselves", and "Since the signing of the Constitution, there have been no disputes among the parties regarding the definition of biological agents or toxins".[5]

According to Title 18 of the United States Code, "... the term "toxin" means the toxic material or product of plants, animals, microorganisms (including, but not limited to, bacteria, viruses, fungi, rickettsiae or protozoa), or infectious substances, or a recombinant or synthesized molecule, whatever their origin and method of production..."[6]

A rather informal terminology of individual toxins relates them to the anatomical location where their effects are most notable:

On a broader scale, toxins may be classified as either exotoxins, being excreted by an organism, or endotoxins, that are released mainly when bacteria are lysed.

Biotoxins

The term "biotoxin" is sometimes used to explicitly confirm the biological origin.[7][8] Biotoxins can be further classified, for example, as fungal biotoxins, microbial toxins, plant biotoxins, or animal biotoxins.

Toxins produced by microorganisms are important virulence determinants responsible for microbial pathogenicity and/or evasion of the host immune response.[9]

Biotoxins vary greatly in purpose and mechanism, and can be highly complex (the venom of the cone snail contains dozens of small proteins, each targeting a specific nerve channel or receptor), or relatively small protein.

Biotoxins in nature have two primary functions:

Some of the more well known types of biotoxins include:

Environmental toxins

Види још: Environmental toxicology

The term "environmental toxin" can sometimes explicitly include synthetic contaminants[10] such as industrial pollutants and other artificially made toxic substances. As this contradicts most formal definitions of the term "toxin", it is important to confirm what the researcher means when encountering the term outside of microbiological contexts.

Environmental toxins from food chains that may be dangerous to human health include:

Finding information about toxins

The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)[21] at the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes access to toxins-related resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations. This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),[22] an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases that are available free of charge on the web.

TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET. TOXMAP uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs.

Computational resources for prediction of toxic peptides and proteins

One of the bottlenecks in peptide/protein-based therapy is their toxicity. Recently, in silico models for predicting toxicity of peptides and proteins, developed by Gajendra Pal Singh Raghava's group,[23] predict toxicity with reasonably good accuracy. The prediction models are based on machine learning technique and quantitative matrix using various properties of peptides. The prediction tool is freely accessible to public in the form of web server.[24]

Vidi još

Reference

  1. ^ „toxin at Dorland's Medical Dictionary”. 
  2. ^ „toxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary”. Приступљено 13. 12. 2008. 
  3. ^ Brade, Helmut (1999). Endotoxin in Health and Disease. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0824719449 — преко Google Books. 
  4. ^ Harper, Douglas. „toxin”. Online Etymology Dictionary. 
  5. ^ „The Biological Weapons Convention – An overview”. Приступљено 13. 12. 2008. 
  6. ^ „U.S. Code”. Архивирано из оригинала 21. 7. 2011. г. Приступљено 13. 12. 2008. 
  7. ^ „biotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary”. Приступљено 13. 12. 2008. 
  8. ^ „biotoxin at Dorland's Medical Dictionary”. 
  9. ^ Proft T, ур. (2009). Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-44-8. 
  10. ^ Grigg J (март 2004). „Environmental toxins; their impact on children's health”. Arch. Dis. Child. 89 (3): 244—50. PMC 1719840 Слободан приступ. PMID 14977703. doi:10.1136/adc.2002.022202. 
  11. ^ Vale C, Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Romarís XM, Arévalo F, Botana AM, Botana LM (март 2008). „In vitro and in vivo evaluation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin potency and the influence of the pH of extraction”. Anal. Chem. 80 (5): 1770—76. PMID 18232710. doi:10.1021/ac7022266. 
  12. ^ Oikawa H, Fujita T, Saito K, Satomi M, Yano Y (2008). „Difference in the level of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin accumulation between the crabs Telmessus acutidens and Charybdis japonica collected in Onahama, Fukushima Prefecture”. Fisheries Science. 73 (2): 395—403. doi:10.1111/j.1444-2906.2007.01347.x. 
  13. ^ Abouabdellah R, Taleb H, Bennouna A, Erler K, Chafik A, Moukrim A (април 2008). „Paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin profile of mussels Perna perna from southern Atlantic coasts of Morocco”. Toxicon. 51 (5): 780—86. PMID 18237757. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.12.004. 
  14. ^ Wang L, Liang XF, Zhang WB, Mai KS, Huang Y, Shen D (новембар 2009). „Amnesic shellfish poisoning toxin stimulates the transcription of CYP1A possibly through AHR and ARNT in the liver of red sea bream Pagrus major”. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 58 (11): 1643—48. PMID 19665739. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.07.004. 
  15. ^ Wang L, Vaquero E, Leão JM, Gogo-Martínez A, Rodríguez Vázquez JA (2001). „Optimization of conditions for the liquid chromatographic-electrospray lonization-mass spectrometric analysis of amnesic shellfish poisoning toxins”. Chromatographia. 53 (1): S231—35. doi:10.1007/BF02490333. 
  16. ^ Mouratidou T, Kaniou-Grigoriadou I, Samara C, Kouimtzis T (август 2006). „Detection of the marine toxin okadaic acid in mussels during a diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) episode in Thermaikos Gulf, Greece, using biological, chemical and immunological methods”. Sci. Total Environ. 366 (2–3): 894—904. Bibcode:2006ScTEn.366..894M. PMID 16815531. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.03.002. 
  17. ^ Doucet E, Ross NN, Quilliam MA (септембар 2007). „Enzymatic hydrolysis of esterified diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins and pectenotoxins”. Anal Bioanal Chem. 389 (1): 335—42. PMID 17661021. doi:10.1007/s00216-007-1489-3. 
  18. ^ Poli MA, Musser SM, Dickey RW, Eilers PP, Hall S (јул 2000). „Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and brevetoxin metabolites: a case study from Florida”. Toxicon. 38 (7): 981—93. PMID 10728835. doi:10.1016/S0041-0101(99)00191-9. 
  19. ^ Morohashi A, Satake M, Murata K, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Yasumoto T (1995). „Brevetoxin B3, a new brevetoxin nalog isolated from the greenshell mussel perna canaliculus involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in new zealand”. Tetrahedron Letters. 36 (49): 8995—98. doi:10.1016/0040-4039(95)01969-O. 
  20. ^ Morohashi A, Satake M, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Oshima Y, Yasumoto T (1999). „Brevetoxin B4 isolated from greenshell mussels Perna canaliculus, the major toxin involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in New Zealand”. Nat. Toxins. 7 (2): 45—48. PMID 10495465. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1522-7189(199903/04)7:2<45::AID-NT34>3.0.CO;2-H. 
  21. ^ „Environmental Health and Toxicology Information ? National Library of Medicine”. sis.nlm.nih.gov. 
  22. ^ „TOXNET”. toxnet.nlm.nih.gov. 
  23. ^ Gupta S, Kapoor P, Chaudhary K, Gautam A, Kumar R, Raghava GP (2013). „In silico approach for predicting toxicity of peptides and proteins”. PLoS ONE. 8 (9): e73957. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...873957G. PMC 3772798 Слободан приступ. PMID 24058508. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073957. 
  24. ^ „ToxinPred”. crdd.osdd.net. 

Spoljašnje veze

Toksin на Викимедијиној остави.
Преузето из „https://sr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toksin&oldid=21911000”