Kontrapunkt

U muzici, kontrapunkt je relationship between two or more musical lines (or voices) which are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour. As a compositional technique, counterpoint is found in many musical styles including Medieval music, gamelan,Шаблон:Citation needed lead and the music of West Africa.Шаблон:Citation needed lead Within the context of Western classical music, counterpoint refers to the texture of polyphony, which developed during the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance and is found in much of the common practice period, especially in the Baroque. The term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum meaning "point against point", i.e. "note against note".

In Western pedagogy, counterpoint is taught through a system of species (see below).

Generalni principi

The term "counterpoint" has been used to designate a voice or even an entire composition. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the harmonies produced by that interaction. In the words of John Rahn:

It is hard to write a beautiful song. It is harder to write several individually beautiful songs that, when sung simultaneously, sound as a more beautiful polyphonic whole. The internal structures that create each of the voices separately must contribute to the emergent structure of the polyphony, which in turn must reinforce and comment on the structures of the individual voices. The way that is accomplished in detail is ... 'counterpoint'.

Work initiated by Guerino Mazzola (born 1947) has given counterpoint theory a mathematical foundation. In particular, Mazzola's model gives a structural (and not psychological) foundation of forbidden parallels of fifths and the dissonant fourth. Octavio Agustin has extended the model to microtonal contexts.

Primeri iz repertoara

There are many examples of song melodies that sound good together when performed simultaneously. For example, "Frère Jacques" and "Three Blind Mice" combine euphoniously when sung together. A number of popular songs that share the same chord progression can also be sung together as counterpoint. A well-known pair of examples is "My Way" combined with "Life on Mars".

Bach's 3-part Invention in F minor combines three independent melodies:

Bach 3-part Invention BWV 795, bars 7–9

Bach 3-part Invention BWV 795, bars 7–9

According to pianist András Schiff, Bach's counterpoint influenced the composing of both Mozart and Beethoven. In the development section of the opening movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in E minor, Beethoven demonstrates this influence by adding "a wonderful counterpoint" to one of the main themes.

Beethoven Piano Sonata Op. 90, first movement bars 110–113

Beethoven Piano Sonata Op. 90, first movement bars 110–113

A further example of fluid counterpoint in late Beethoven may be found in the first orchestral variation on the "Ode to Joy" theme in the last movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9, bars 116–123. The famous theme is heard on the violas and cellos, while "the basses add a bass-line whose sheer unpredictability gives the impression that it is being spontaneously improvised. Meantime a solo bassoon adds a counterpoint that has a similarly impromptu quality."

Beethoven, Symphony No. 9, finale, bars 116–123

Beethoven, Symphony No. 9, finale, bars 116–123

In the Prelude to Richard Wagner's opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, three themes from the opera are combined simultaneously. According to Gordon Jacob, "This is universally and justly acclaimed as an extraordinary feat of virtuosity." However, Donald Tovey points out that here "the combination of themes ... unlike classical counterpoint, really do not of themselves combine into complete or euphonious harmony."

Wagner Meistersinger Vorspiel bars 158–161

Wagner Meistersinger Vorspiel bars 158–161

One spectacular example of 5-voice counterpoint can be found in the finale to Mozart's Symphony No 41 ("Jupiter" Symphony). Here five tunes combine simultaneously in "a rich tapestry of dialogue":

Mozart Symphony No. 41 Finale, bars 389–396

Mozart Symphony No. 41 Finale, bars 389–396

See also Invertible counterpoint.

Forme kontrapunkta

Gradus ad Parnassum (1725) by Johann Joseph Fux defines the modern system of teaching counterpoint

An example of "third species" counterpoint

Species counterpoint was developed as a pedagogical tool in which students progress through several "species" of increasing complexity, with a very simple part that remains constant known as the cantus firmus (Latin for "fixed melody"). Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a "strict" counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to write free counterpoint (that is, less rigorously constrained counterpoint, usually without a cantus firmus) according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a similar concept in his Scintille di musica (Brescia, 1533). The 16th-century Venetian theorist Zarlino elaborated on the idea in his influential Le institutioni harmoniche, and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by Lodovico Zacconi in his Prattica di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, such as invertible counterpoint.

Literatura

• Sachs, Klaus-Jürgen; Dahlhaus, Carl (2001). „Counterpoint”. Ур.: Stanley Sadie; John Tyrrell. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (second изд.). London: Macmillan Publishers. 
• Salzer, Felix; Schachter, Carl (1989). Counterpoint in Composition: The Study of Voice Leading. New York: Stanley Persky, City University of New York. ISBN 023107039X. 
• Kurth, Ernst (1991). "Foundations of Linear Counterpoint". In Ernst Kurth: Selected Writings, selected and translated by Lee Allen Rothfarb, foreword by Ian Bent, p. 37–95. Cambridge Studies in Music Theory and Analysis 2. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Paperback reprint 2006. ISBN 0-521-35522-2 (cloth); ISBN 0-521-02824-8 (pbk)
• Mazzola, Guerino, et al. (2015). Computational Counterpoint Worlds. Heidelberg: Springer.
• Prout, Ebenezer (1890). Counterpoint: Strict and Free. London: Augener & Co.
• Spalding, Walter Raymond (1904). Tonal Counterpoint: Studies in Part-writing. Boston, New York: A. P. Schmidt.
• Kennan, Kent (1999). Counterpoint (fourth изд.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. стр. 4. ISBN 0-13-080746-X. 
• Arnold, Denis.; Scholes, Percy A. (1983). The New Oxford Companion to Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. стр. 1877—1958. ISBN 0193113163. OCLC 10096883. 
• Katz, Adele (1946). Challenge to Musical Tradition: A New Concept of Tonality (New York: A.A. Knopf), p. 340. Reprinted New York: Da Capo Press, 1972; reprinted n.p.: Katz Press, 2007, ISBN 1-4067-5761-6.
• Cunningham, Michael (2007). Technique for Composers, p. 144. ISBN 1-4259-9618-3.
• Spilker, John D., "Substituting a New Order": Dissonant Counterpoint, Henry Cowell, and the network of ultra-modern composers Архивирано 2011-08-15 на сајту Wayback Machine, Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University College of Music, 2010.
• Anon. „Species Counterpoint” (PDF). Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Victoria, Canada. Архивирано из оригинала (PDF) 23. 10. 2018. г. Приступљено 16. 5. 2020. CS1 одржавање: Формат датума (веза) (archive from 23 October 2018)
• Fux, Johann Joseph 1660-1741 (1965). The study of counterpoint from Johann Joseph Fux's Gradus ad parnassum (Rev. изд.). New York: W. W. Norton. 
• Hendrik van der Werf (1997). "Early Western polyphony", Companion to Medieval & Renaissance Music. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816540-4.
• Margaret Bent (1999). "The Grammar of Early Music: Preconditions for Analysis", Tonal Structures of Early Music. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-2388-3.
• DeVoto, Mark (2015). „Polyphony”. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Приступљено 2015-12-01. 
• Jordania, Joseph (2011). Why do People Sing? Music in Human Evolution. Logos. стр. 13—37. ISBN 978-9941-401-86-2. 
• Bruno Nettl. Polyphony in North American Indian music. Musical Quarterly, 1961, 47:354–62
• Joseph Jordania (2006). Who Asked the First Question? The Origins of Human Choral Singing, Intelligence, Language and Speech (PDF). Tbilisi: Logos. ISBN 99940-31-81-3. Архивирано из оригинала (PDF) 7. 3. 2012. г. CS1 одржавање: Формат датума (веза)

Spoljašnje veze

• An explanation and teach yourself method for Species Counterpoint
• An Introduction to Species Counterpoint
• ntoll.org: Species Counterpoint by Nicholas H. Tollervey
• Principles of Counterpoint by Alan Belkin
• Orima: The History of Experimental Music in Northern California: On Dissonant Counterpoint by David Nicholls from his American Experimental Music: 1890–1940
• Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary: Dissonant counterpoint examples and definition
• De-Mystifying Tonal Counterpoint or How to Overcome Your Fear of Composing Counterpoint Exercises by Christopher Dylan Bailey, composer at Columbia University
• Counterpointer:Software tutorial for the study of counterpoint by Jeffrey Evans
• "Bach as Contrapuntist" by Dan Brown, music critic from Cornell University, from his web book Why Bach?
• "contrapuntal—a collaborative arts project by Benjamin Skepper"