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Укрштање у сродству — разлика између измена

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{{Short description|Својство да је особа истог сродства са другом особом}}{{rut}}
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'''Укрштање у сродству''' или '''консангвинитет''' представља укрштање јединки које имају заједничког [[Предак|претка]] у једом од шест најближих покољења. Најужа веза у [[сродство|сродству]] је [[инбридинг]] ([[родоскрнављење|инцест]]) и она се може остварити између:
* родитеља и њихове деце;
* сестре и брата;
* бабе и деде са њиховом унучади.


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'''Укрштање у сродству''' или '''консангвинитет''' представља укрштање јединки које имају заједничког [[Предак|претка]] у једом од шест најближих покољења. Најужа веза у [[сродство|сродству]] је [[инбридинг]] ([[родоскрнављење|инцест]]) и она се може остварити између: родитеља и њихове деце; сестре и брата; бабе и деде са њиховом унучади. Брак између сродника изузетно је значајан за медицину и хуману генетику.
Брак између сродника изузетно је значајан за медицину и хуману генетику.

Many jurisdictions have laws prohibiting people who are related by blood from [[Consanguine marriage|marrying]] or having sexual relations with each other. The [[degree of relationship|degree of consanguinity]] that gives rise to this prohibition varies from place to place.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Sullivan |first1=Kathryn |title=Access to marriage: consanguinity and affinity prohibitions in national and international context |journal=Irish Journal of Family Law |date=2019 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=8–12}}</ref> Such rules are also used to determine [[heir]]s of an estate according to statutes that govern [[intestacy|intestate]] succession, which also vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Herbert |title=Methods of Intestate Succession |journal=University of Cincinnati Law Review |date=1940 |volume=14 |page=508}}</ref> In some places and time periods, [[cousin marriage]] is allowed or even encouraged; in others, it is [[taboo]], and considered to be [[incest]].

The degree of relative consanguinity can be illustrated with a ''consanguinity table'' in which each level of lineal consanguinity (''[[generation]]'' or ''[[meiosis]]'') appears as a row, and individuals with a collaterally consanguineous relationship share the same row.<ref>{{cite web|publisher = Sleepy Hollow Cemetery|url = http://sleepyhollowcemetery.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/consanguinity-scaled.jpg |title = Table of Consanguinity}}</ref> The Knot System is a numerical notation that describes consanguinity using the [[Ahnentafel]] numbers of shared ancestors.<ref>Højrup, Knud, [http://www.knotsystem.dk "The Knot System: A Numeric Notation of Relationship"], ''National Genealogical Society Quarterly'', Vol. 84, Numb. 2, p. 115, June 1996, ISSN 0027-934X.</ref>


==Историја==
==Историја==

Забрана брака са даљим рођацима коју је наметнула римокатоличка црква наишла је на тешке критике и отпор у хрватском друштву у 11. столећу, што је довело и до раскола у хрватској цркви.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dvornik|first=Francis|title=Byzantine mission among the Slavs|url=https://archive.org/details/byzantinemission0000dvor|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1970|isbn=0813506131|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/byzantinemission0000dvor/page/241 241]}}</ref>
Забрана брака са даљим рођацима коју је наметнула римокатоличка црква наишла је на тешке критике и отпор у хрватском друштву у 11. столећу, што је довело и до раскола у хрватској цркви.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dvornik|first=Francis|title=Byzantine mission among the Slavs|url=https://archive.org/details/byzantinemission0000dvor|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1970|isbn=0813506131|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/byzantinemission0000dvor/page/241 241]}}</ref>

== Legal definitions ==
[[File:Bernard Gui BNF lat4975.jpg|thumb|200px|Consanguinity of the [[kings of France]] as shown in ''Arbor genealogiae regum Francorum'' ([[Bernard Gui]], early 14th century).]]

===Modern secular law===
The degree of kinship between two people may give rise to several legal issues. Some laws prohibit [[sexual relations]] between closely related people, referred to as incestuous. Laws may also bar marriage between closely related people, which are almost universally prohibited to the second degree of consanguinity. Some jurisdictions forbid marriage between [[Cousin#First cousin|first cousins]], while others do not. Marriage with aunts and uncles ([[avunculate marriage]]) is legal in several countries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=RCW 26.04.020: Prohibited marriages.|url=https://app.leg.wa.gov/rcw/default.aspx?cite=26.04.020|access-date=2021-10-01|website=app.leg.wa.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Farrow|first1=Michael G.|last2=Juberg|first2=Richard C.|date=1969-07-28|title=Genetics and Laws Prohibiting Marriage in the United States|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1969.03160170030006|journal=JAMA|volume=209|issue=4|pages=534–538|doi=10.1001/jama.1969.03160170030006|pmid=5819418|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>

Consanguinity is also relevant to inheritance, particularly with regard to [[intestate succession]]. In general, laws tend to favor inheritance by persons closely related to the deceased. Some jurisdictions ban citizens from service on a jury on the basis of consanguinity as well as affinity with persons involved in the case.<ref>Ohio, for example, bars from juries in civil cases persons within the fourth degree of consanguinity to either party or their counsel (Ohio Revised Code [http://codes.ohio.gov/orc/2313.17v1 §2313.17] (2012)); and persons within the fifth degree of consanguinity "to the person alleged to be injured or attempted to be injured by the offense charged, or to the person on whose complaint the prosecution was instituted, or to the defendant". Ohio Revised Code [http://codes.ohio.gov/orc/2945.25v1 §2945.25] (1981).</ref>

===Religious and traditional law===
====Christianity====

Under [[Roman law|Roman civil law]], which the early [[canon law of the Catholic Church]] followed, couples were forbidden to marry if they were within four degrees of consanguinity.<ref name="Bouchard2010">{{cite book|author=Constance Brittain Bouchard|title=Those of My Blood: Creating Noble Families in Medieval Francia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxSxikFnSU8C&pg=PA40|date=24 November 2010|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0140-6|page=40}}</ref> Around the ninth century the church raised the number of prohibited degrees to seven and changed the method by which they were calculated; instead of the former Roman practice of counting each generational link up to the common ancestor and then down again to the proposed spouse as a single degree, the new method computed consanguinity only by counting back the number of generations to the common ancestor.<ref name="Bouchard2010"/> Intermarriage was now prohibited to anyone more closely related than seventh cousins, which meant that in particular the nobility struggled to find partners to marry, the pool of non-related prospective spouses having become substantially smaller. They had to either defy the church's position or look elsewhere for eligible marriage candidates.<ref name="Bouchard2010"/> In the [[Roman Catholic Church]], unknowingly marrying a closely consanguineous blood relative was grounds for a [[declaration of nullity]], but during the eleventh and twelfth centuries [[Dispensation (Catholic canon law)|dispensations]] were granted with increasing frequency due to the thousands of persons encompassed in the prohibition at seven degrees and the hardships this posed for finding potential spouses.<ref name="LSCS356">{{cite book|author=James A. Brundage|title=Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiGe-Zf0nTIC|date=15 February 2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-07789-5|page=356}}</ref>

In 1215 the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran|Fourth Lateran Council]] made what they believed was a necessary change to canon law reducing the number of prohibited degrees of consanguinity from seven back to four, but retaining the later method of calculating degrees.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fourth Lateran Council: Canon 50. Prohibition of marriage is now perpetually restricted to the fourth degree|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/LATERAN4.HTM#50|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820183422/http://www.ewtn.com/library/councils/lateran4.htm|archive-date=2016-08-20|date=1215}}</ref><ref name="Baldwin1994">{{cite book|author=John W. Baldwin|title=The Language of Sex: Five Voices from Northern France Around 1200|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=21h6F7vAuv0C&pg=PA78|date=28 May 1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-03613-7|page=78}}</ref> After 1215, the general rule was that fourth cousins could marry without dispensation, greatly reducing the need for dispensations.<ref name="LSCS356"/> In fourteenth century England, for example, papal dispensations for annulments due to consanguinity (and [[Affinity (Catholic canon law)|affinity]]) were relatively few.<ref name="Helmholz2007">{{cite book|author=R. H. Helmholz|title=Marriage Litigation in Medieval England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AU9knRHiiAC|date=26 March 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03562-0|page=86}}</ref>

The ban on marriage to minor degrees of relationship imposed by the Roman Catholic Church was met with heavy criticism in the Croatian society in the 11th century, which led to a schism in the Croatian church.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dvornik|first=Francis|title=Byzantine mission among the Slavs|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1970|isbn=0813506131|location=|pages=241}}</ref>

Among the Christian ''Habesha'' highlanders of [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]] (the predominantly orthodox Christian [[Amhara people|Amhara]] and [[Tigrayans|Tigray]]-[[Tigrinya people|Tigrinya]]), it is a tradition to be able to recount one's paternal ancestors at least seven generations away starting from early childhood, because "those with a common patrilineal ancestor less than seven generations away are considered 'brother and sister' and may not marry." The rule is less strict on the mother's side, where the limit is about four generations back, but still determined patrilinearly. This rule does not apply to Muslims or other ethnic groups.<ref>Wolbert Smidt, "Genealogy" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed., ''[[Encyclopaedia Aethiopica]]: D-Ha'', (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 743.</ref>

====Islam====

The [[Quran]] at 4:22–24 states. "Forbidden to you in marriage are: your mothers, your daughters, your sisters, your father's sisters, your mother's sisters, your brother's daughters, your sister's daughters."<ref>{{cite web |title=Surah An-Nisa [4:22–25] |url=https://quran.com/4/22-25 |publisher=Quran.com |access-date=16 June 2018}}</ref> Therefore, the list of forbidden marriage partners, as read in the Qur'an, Surah 4:23, does not include first cousins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://quran.com/4/23|title=The Qur'an}} [http://irebd.com/quran/english/surah-4/verse-23/ Quran Surah An-Nisaa ( Verse 23 )]</ref> [[Muhammad]] himself married his first cousin [[Zaynab bint Jahsh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.islamswomen.com/articles/zaynab_bint_jahsh.php|title=Islam's Women|date=n.d.|publisher=unknown}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2018}}

Financial incentives to discourage consanguineous marriages exist in some countries: mandatory premarital screening for inherited blood disorders has existed in the UAE since 2004 and in Qatar since 2009, whereby couples with positive results will not receive their marriage grant.<ref name="mid">[http://www.middleeasthealthmag.com/cgi-bin/index.cgi?http://www.middleeasthealthmag.com/may2012/feature2.htm Consanguineous marriage: Should it be discouraged?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010101037/http://www.middleeasthealthmag.com/cgi-bin/index.cgi?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleeasthealthmag.com%2Fmay2012%2Ffeature2.htm |date=2017-10-10 }} June 2012, MiddleEastHealthMag.com, retrieved 28 Nov 2018</ref><ref name="pmid24294299">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bener A, Dafeeah EE, Samson N |title=Does consanguinity increase the risk of schizophrenia? Study based on primary health care centre visits |journal=Ment Health Fam Med |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=241–8 |year=2012 |pmid=24294299 |pmc=3721918 }}</ref>


==Степен сродства==
==Степен сродства==
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== Genetic disorders ==

The phenomenon of inbreeding increases the level of homozygotes for autosomal genetic disorders and generally leads to a decreased [[fitness (biology)|biological fitness]] of a population known as [[inbreeding depression]], a major objective in clinical studies.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fareed M, Afzal M| year = 2014 | title = Evidence of inbreeding depression on height, weight, and body mass index: a population-based child cohort study | journal = Am. J. Hum. Biol. | volume = 26 | issue = 6| pages = 784–95 | doi = 10.1002/ajhb.22599 | pmid = 25130378 | s2cid = 6086127 }}</ref> While the risks of [[inbreeding]] are well-known, informing [[minority group]] families with a [[tradition]] of [[endogamy]] and changing their behavior is a challenging task for [[genetic counseling]] in the health care system.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 2| issue = 1| pages = 1–10| last = Staal| first = J| title = Applied Cultural and Social Studies are Needed for a Sustainable Reduction of Genetic Disease Incidence| journal = European Journal of Sociology and Anthropology| date = 2017| doi = 10.20897/ejsa.201701 | doi-access = free}}</ref> The offspring of consanguineous relationships are at greater risk of certain genetic disorders. [[Autosomal recessive]] disorders occur in individuals who are [[homozygous]] for a particular recessive gene [[mutation]].<ref name="CBMCA920">William J Marshall, Ph. D.; S K Bangert, ''Clinical biochemistry : metabolic and clinical aspects'' (Edinburgh; New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2008), p. 920</ref> This means that they carry two copies ([[allele]]s) of the same gene.<ref name="CBMCA920"/> Except in certain rare circumstances (new mutations or [[uniparental disomy]]) both parents of an individual with such a disorder will be carriers of the gene.<ref name="CBMCA920"/> Such carriers are not affected and will not display any signs that they are carriers, and so may be unaware that they carry the mutated gene. As relatives share a proportion of their genes, it is much more likely that related parents will be carriers of an autosomal recessive gene, and therefore their children are at a higher risk of an autosomal recessive disorder.<ref name="GACA138">Benjamin Pierce, ''Genetics: A Conceptual Approach'' (New York: W.H. Freeman, 2012), p. 138</ref> The extent to which the risk increases depends on the degree of genetic relationship between the parents; so the risk is greater in mating relationships where the parents are close relatives, but for relationships between more distant relatives, such as second cousins, the risk is lower (although still greater than the general population).<ref>Kingston H M, "ABC of Clinical Genetics", 3rd Edition (London: BMJ Books, 2002), Page 7, {{ISBN|0-7279-1627-0}}</ref>

Consanguinity in a population increases its susceptibility to infectious [[pathogen]]s such as [[tuberculosis]] and [[hepatitis]] but may decrease its susceptibility to malaria and other pathogens.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lyons EJ, Frodsham AJ, Zhang L, Hill AV, Amos W| year = 2009 | title = Consanguinity and susceptibility to infectious diseases in humans | journal = Biol Lett | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 574–6 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2009.0133 | pmid = 19324620 | pmc=2684220}}</ref>


==Види још==
==Види још==
* [[Метода родослова]]
* [[Метода родослова]]

== Референце ==
{{reflist|}}


== Литература ==
== Литература ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book | last1 = Griffiths | first1 = Anthony J. F. | first2 = Jeffrey H. | last2 = Miller | first3 = David T. | last3 = Suzuki | first4 = Richard C. | last4 = Lewontin | first5 = William M. | last5 = Gelbart | title = An introduction to genetic analysis | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 1999 | location = New York | pages = 726–727 | isbn = 978-0-7167-3771-1 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Bittles AH, Black ML | title = Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Consanguinity, human evolution, and complex diseases | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 Suppl 1 | issue = suppl 1 | pages = 1779–86 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19805052 | pmc = 2868287 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0906079106 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.1779B | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Fareed M, Afzal M | title = Evidence of inbreeding depression on height, weight, and body mass index: a population-based child cohort study | journal = American Journal of Human Biology | volume = 26 | issue = 6 | pages = 784–95 | year = 2014 | pmid = 25130378 | doi = 10.1002/ajhb.22599 | s2cid = 6086127 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Fareed M, Kaisar Ahmad M, Azeem Anwar M, Afzal M | title = Impact of consanguineous marriages and degrees of inbreeding on fertility, child mortality, secondary sex ratio, selection intensity, and genetic load: a cross-sectional study from Northern India | journal = Pediatric Research | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 18–26 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 27632780 | doi = 10.1038/pr.2016.177 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Fareed M, Afzal M | title = Increased cardiovascular risks associated with familial inbreeding: a population-based study of adolescent cohort | journal = Annals of Epidemiology | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 283–92 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 27084548 | doi = 10.1016/j.annepidem.2016.03.001 }}
{{refend}}


==Спољашње везе==
== Спољашње везе ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Consanguinity}}
*[http://snena.tripod.com/id63.html BioNet Škola]{{Мртва веза|date=10. 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}


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Верзија на датум 1. мај 2023. у 02:47

Укрштање у сродству или консангвинитет представља укрштање јединки које имају заједничког претка у једом од шест најближих покољења. Најужа веза у сродству је инбридинг (инцест) и она се може остварити између: родитеља и њихове деце; сестре и брата; бабе и деде са њиховом унучади. Брак између сродника изузетно је значајан за медицину и хуману генетику.

Many jurisdictions have laws prohibiting people who are related by blood from marrying or having sexual relations with each other. The degree of consanguinity that gives rise to this prohibition varies from place to place.[1] Such rules are also used to determine heirs of an estate according to statutes that govern intestate succession, which also vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.[2] In some places and time periods, cousin marriage is allowed or even encouraged; in others, it is taboo, and considered to be incest.

The degree of relative consanguinity can be illustrated with a consanguinity table in which each level of lineal consanguinity (generation or meiosis) appears as a row, and individuals with a collaterally consanguineous relationship share the same row.[3] The Knot System is a numerical notation that describes consanguinity using the Ahnentafel numbers of shared ancestors.[4]

Историја

Забрана брака са даљим рођацима коју је наметнула римокатоличка црква наишла је на тешке критике и отпор у хрватском друштву у 11. столећу, што је довело и до раскола у хрватској цркви.[5]

Legal definitions

Consanguinity of the kings of France as shown in Arbor genealogiae regum Francorum (Bernard Gui, early 14th century).

Modern secular law

The degree of kinship between two people may give rise to several legal issues. Some laws prohibit sexual relations between closely related people, referred to as incestuous. Laws may also bar marriage between closely related people, which are almost universally prohibited to the second degree of consanguinity. Some jurisdictions forbid marriage between first cousins, while others do not. Marriage with aunts and uncles (avunculate marriage) is legal in several countries.[6][7]

Consanguinity is also relevant to inheritance, particularly with regard to intestate succession. In general, laws tend to favor inheritance by persons closely related to the deceased. Some jurisdictions ban citizens from service on a jury on the basis of consanguinity as well as affinity with persons involved in the case.[8]

Religious and traditional law

Christianity

Under Roman civil law, which the early canon law of the Catholic Church followed, couples were forbidden to marry if they were within four degrees of consanguinity.[9] Around the ninth century the church raised the number of prohibited degrees to seven and changed the method by which they were calculated; instead of the former Roman practice of counting each generational link up to the common ancestor and then down again to the proposed spouse as a single degree, the new method computed consanguinity only by counting back the number of generations to the common ancestor.[9] Intermarriage was now prohibited to anyone more closely related than seventh cousins, which meant that in particular the nobility struggled to find partners to marry, the pool of non-related prospective spouses having become substantially smaller. They had to either defy the church's position or look elsewhere for eligible marriage candidates.[9] In the Roman Catholic Church, unknowingly marrying a closely consanguineous blood relative was grounds for a declaration of nullity, but during the eleventh and twelfth centuries dispensations were granted with increasing frequency due to the thousands of persons encompassed in the prohibition at seven degrees and the hardships this posed for finding potential spouses.[10]

In 1215 the Fourth Lateran Council made what they believed was a necessary change to canon law reducing the number of prohibited degrees of consanguinity from seven back to four, but retaining the later method of calculating degrees.[11][12] After 1215, the general rule was that fourth cousins could marry without dispensation, greatly reducing the need for dispensations.[10] In fourteenth century England, for example, papal dispensations for annulments due to consanguinity (and affinity) were relatively few.[13]

The ban on marriage to minor degrees of relationship imposed by the Roman Catholic Church was met with heavy criticism in the Croatian society in the 11th century, which led to a schism in the Croatian church.[14]

Among the Christian Habesha highlanders of Ethiopia and Eritrea (the predominantly orthodox Christian Amhara and Tigray-Tigrinya), it is a tradition to be able to recount one's paternal ancestors at least seven generations away starting from early childhood, because "those with a common patrilineal ancestor less than seven generations away are considered 'brother and sister' and may not marry." The rule is less strict on the mother's side, where the limit is about four generations back, but still determined patrilinearly. This rule does not apply to Muslims or other ethnic groups.[15]

Islam

The Quran at 4:22–24 states. "Forbidden to you in marriage are: your mothers, your daughters, your sisters, your father's sisters, your mother's sisters, your brother's daughters, your sister's daughters."[16] Therefore, the list of forbidden marriage partners, as read in the Qur'an, Surah 4:23, does not include first cousins.[17] Muhammad himself married his first cousin Zaynab bint Jahsh.[18]Шаблон:Better source needed

Financial incentives to discourage consanguineous marriages exist in some countries: mandatory premarital screening for inherited blood disorders has existed in the UAE since 2004 and in Qatar since 2009, whereby couples with positive results will not receive their marriage grant.[19][20]

Степен сродства

Уколико су две особе у сродству, имају већи или мањи број истих гена наслеђених од заједничког претка. Што је сродство веће, већи је и једнаки део генома. Тај део генома може да обухвати и алеле који у хомозиготном стању имају штетно дејство.

Консагвинитетни бракови су најчешћи код репродуктивно изолованих људских популација, као што су:

  • изолована острва
  • планински масиви нпр. у Шведској
  • племенске заједнице у Андима Јужне Америке и др.

Поред штетних последица, какве су већа учесталост психичких болести и физичких недостатака, у оваквим браковима је примећено да долази и до појаве учесталије стерилности и особа са црвеном косом.

Вероватноћа да нека особа носи два иста алела тј. два алела који потичу од истог претка, назива се коефицијент инбридинга (F). Његова вредност зависи од степена сродства родитеља и рачуна се по формули :

F=(½)n ,

где је n степен сродства између особа које ступају у брак, а ½ јер сваки потомак садржи половину гена једног родитеља.

Степени сродства поређани од највећег ка мањим степенима изгледају овако :

  • I степен је између родитеља и њихове деце;
  • II степен је између рођених сестара и браће;
  • III степен је између тетака (ујака, стричева) са једне и братанаца (сестричина, братаница) са друге стране
  • IV степен је између првих рођака (браћа и сестре од тетака, ујака, стричева)
  • у VI степену сродства су деца првих рођака међусобно односно други рођаци.

Најчешћи бракови у сродству су између првих рођака, где је пропорција заједничких гена 1/8. Вероватноћа да ће дете првих рођака бити хомозигот је :

F=(1/2)4 =1/16

У многим земљама света закон забрањује овакав брак између особа које имају заједничке бабу и деду. У нашој земљи закон забрањује склапање бракова до VI степена сродства због могућих негативних последица у потомству.

Највећа вероватноћа успостављања хомозиготног стања рецесивног гена је у случају инцеста. Мада познат у људским популацијама инцест је редак. Ипак, процењено је да се у Мичигену (САД) јавља око 20 трудноћа годишње као резултат инцеста.

Генерације

У односу према једној особи (пробанду) могуће је одредити:

  • генерације потомака или десцендентне генерације чији је преглед дат у наредној табели:
Сродство Ознака потомачке генерације
родитељи Р1
деца F1
унуци F2
праунуци F3
прапраунуци F4
прапрапраунуци F5
даљи потомци Fn
  • генерације предака или асцендентне генерације:
Сродство Ознака предачке генерације Број предака
даљи преци Pn 2n
прапрапрадеде Р5 32
прапрадеде Р4 16
прадеде Р3 8
деде Р2 4
родитељи Р1 2
дете F1

Genetic disorders

The phenomenon of inbreeding increases the level of homozygotes for autosomal genetic disorders and generally leads to a decreased biological fitness of a population known as inbreeding depression, a major objective in clinical studies.[21] While the risks of inbreeding are well-known, informing minority group families with a tradition of endogamy and changing their behavior is a challenging task for genetic counseling in the health care system.[22] The offspring of consanguineous relationships are at greater risk of certain genetic disorders. Autosomal recessive disorders occur in individuals who are homozygous for a particular recessive gene mutation.[23] This means that they carry two copies (alleles) of the same gene.[23] Except in certain rare circumstances (new mutations or uniparental disomy) both parents of an individual with such a disorder will be carriers of the gene.[23] Such carriers are not affected and will not display any signs that they are carriers, and so may be unaware that they carry the mutated gene. As relatives share a proportion of their genes, it is much more likely that related parents will be carriers of an autosomal recessive gene, and therefore their children are at a higher risk of an autosomal recessive disorder.[24] The extent to which the risk increases depends on the degree of genetic relationship between the parents; so the risk is greater in mating relationships where the parents are close relatives, but for relationships between more distant relatives, such as second cousins, the risk is lower (although still greater than the general population).[25]

Consanguinity in a population increases its susceptibility to infectious pathogens such as tuberculosis and hepatitis but may decrease its susceptibility to malaria and other pathogens.[26]

Види још

Референце

  1. ^ O'Sullivan, Kathryn (2019). „Access to marriage: consanguinity and affinity prohibitions in national and international context”. Irish Journal of Family Law. 22 (2): 8—12. 
  2. ^ Ritchie, Herbert (1940). „Methods of Intestate Succession”. University of Cincinnati Law Review. 14: 508. 
  3. ^ „Table of Consanguinity”. Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. 
  4. ^ Højrup, Knud, "The Knot System: A Numeric Notation of Relationship", National Genealogical Society Quarterly, Vol. 84, Numb. 2, p. 115, June 1996, ISSN 0027-934X.
  5. ^ Dvornik, Francis (1970). Byzantine mission among the Slavs. Rutgers University Press. стр. 241. ISBN 0813506131. 
  6. ^ „RCW 26.04.020: Prohibited marriages.”. app.leg.wa.gov. Приступљено 2021-10-01. 
  7. ^ Farrow, Michael G.; Juberg, Richard C. (1969-07-28). „Genetics and Laws Prohibiting Marriage in the United States”. JAMA. 209 (4): 534—538. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 5819418. doi:10.1001/jama.1969.03160170030006. 
  8. ^ Ohio, for example, bars from juries in civil cases persons within the fourth degree of consanguinity to either party or their counsel (Ohio Revised Code §2313.17 (2012)); and persons within the fifth degree of consanguinity "to the person alleged to be injured or attempted to be injured by the offense charged, or to the person on whose complaint the prosecution was instituted, or to the defendant". Ohio Revised Code §2945.25 (1981).
  9. ^ а б в Constance Brittain Bouchard (24. 11. 2010). Those of My Blood: Creating Noble Families in Medieval Francia. University of Pennsylvania Press. стр. 40. ISBN 978-0-8122-0140-6. 
  10. ^ а б James A. Brundage (15. 2. 2009). Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe. University of Chicago Press. стр. 356. ISBN 978-0-226-07789-5. 
  11. ^ „Fourth Lateran Council: Canon 50. Prohibition of marriage is now perpetually restricted to the fourth degree”. 1215. Архивирано из оригинала 2016-08-20. г. 
  12. ^ John W. Baldwin (28. 5. 1994). The Language of Sex: Five Voices from Northern France Around 1200. University of Chicago Press. стр. 78. ISBN 978-0-226-03613-7. 
  13. ^ R. H. Helmholz (26. 3. 2007). Marriage Litigation in Medieval England. Cambridge University Press. стр. 86. ISBN 978-0-521-03562-0. 
  14. ^ Dvornik, Francis (1970). Byzantine mission among the Slavs. Rutgers University Press. стр. 241. ISBN 0813506131. 
  15. ^ Wolbert Smidt, "Genealogy" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed., Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha, (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 743.
  16. ^ „Surah An-Nisa [4:22–25]”. Quran.com. Приступљено 16. 6. 2018. 
  17. ^ „The Qur'an”.  Quran Surah An-Nisaa ( Verse 23 )
  18. ^ „Islam's Women”. unknown. n.d. 
  19. ^ Consanguineous marriage: Should it be discouraged? Архивирано 2017-10-10 на сајту Wayback Machine June 2012, MiddleEastHealthMag.com, retrieved 28 Nov 2018
  20. ^ Bener A, Dafeeah EE, Samson N (2012). „Does consanguinity increase the risk of schizophrenia? Study based on primary health care centre visits”. Ment Health Fam Med. 9 (4): 241—8. PMC 3721918 Слободан приступ. PMID 24294299. 
  21. ^ Fareed M, Afzal M (2014). „Evidence of inbreeding depression on height, weight, and body mass index: a population-based child cohort study”. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 26 (6): 784—95. PMID 25130378. S2CID 6086127. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22599. 
  22. ^ Staal, J (2017). „Applied Cultural and Social Studies are Needed for a Sustainable Reduction of Genetic Disease Incidence”. European Journal of Sociology and Anthropology. 2 (1): 1—10. doi:10.20897/ejsa.201701 Слободан приступ. 
  23. ^ а б в William J Marshall, Ph. D.; S K Bangert, Clinical biochemistry : metabolic and clinical aspects (Edinburgh; New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2008), p. 920
  24. ^ Benjamin Pierce, Genetics: A Conceptual Approach (New York: W.H. Freeman, 2012), p. 138
  25. ^ Kingston H M, "ABC of Clinical Genetics", 3rd Edition (London: BMJ Books, 2002), Page 7, ISBN 0-7279-1627-0
  26. ^ Lyons EJ, Frodsham AJ, Zhang L, Hill AV, Amos W (2009). „Consanguinity and susceptibility to infectious diseases in humans”. Biol Lett. 5 (4): 574—6. PMC 2684220 Слободан приступ. PMID 19324620. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0133. 

Литература

Спољашње везе

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