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Great egret (Ardea alba) in a courtship display communicating the desire to find a mate.

Animal communication is the transfer of information from one or a group of animals (sender or senders) to one or more other animals (receiver or receivers) that affects the current or future behavior of the receivers.[1] Information may be sent intentionally, as in a courtship display, or unintentionally, as in the transfer of scent from predator to prey with kairomones. Information may be transferred to an "audience" of several receivers.[2] Animal communication is a rapidly growing area of study in disciplines including animal behavior, sociology, neurology and animal cognition. Many aspects of animal behavior, such as symbolic name use, emotional expression, learning and sexual behavior, are being understood in new ways.

When the information from the sender changes the behavior of a receiver, the information is referred to as a "signal". Signalling theory predicts that for a signal to be maintained in the population, both the sender and receiver should usually receive some benefit from the interaction. Signal production by senders and the perception and subsequent response of receivers are thought to coevolve.[3] Signals often involve multiple mechanisms, e.g. both visual and auditory, and for a signal to be understood the coordinated behaviour of both sender and receiver require careful study.

Modovi

A lamb investigates a rabbit, an example of interspecific communication using body posture and olfaction.

Vizualno

  • Gestures: Most animals understand communication through a visual display of distinctive body parts or bodily movements. Animals will reveal or accentuate a body part to relay certain information. The parent herring gull displays its bright yellow bill on the ground next over its chick when it has returned to the nest with food. The chicks exhibit a begging response by tapping the red spot on the lower mandible of the parent herring gull's bill. This signal stimulates the parent to regurgitate food and completes the feeding signal. The distinctive morphological feature accentuated in this communication is the parent's red-spotted bill, while the tapping towards the ground makes the red spot visible to the chick, demonstrating a distinctive movement.[4] Frans de Waal studied bonobos and chimps to understand if language was somehow evolved by gestures. He found that both apes and humans only use intentional gestures to communicate.[5]
  • Facial expression: Another important signal of emotion in animal communication are facial gestures. Blue and Yellow Macaws were studied to understand how they reacted to interactions with a familiar animal care taker. Studies show that Blue and Yellow Macaws demonstrated a significant amount of blushing frequently during mutual interactions with a caretaker.[6] In another experiment, Jeffrey Mogil studied facial expression in mice in response to increments of increasing pain. He found that mice exhibited five recognizable face expressions: orbital tightening, nose and cheek bulge, and changes in ear and whisker carriage.[7]
  • Gaze-following: Social animals use gaze-following as a form of communication through monitoring head and eye orientation in other mammals.[8] Studies have been conducted on apes, monkeys, dogs, birds, wolves and tortoises, and have focused on two different tasks: "follow[ing] another's gaze into distant space" and "follow[ing] another's gaze geometrically around a visual barrier e.g. by repositioning themselves to follow a gaze cue when faced with a barrier blocking their view".[9] A broad range of animals have been proven to exhibit the latter, however only apes, dogs, wolves, and corvids (ravens) have been able to follow another's gaze into distant space. Marmosets and ibis were unable to demonstrate "geometric gaze following". Researchers do not yet have a clear picture of the cognitive basis of gaze following, but developmental evidence indicates that "simple" gaze following and "geometric" gaze following probably rely on different cognitive mechanisms.[8]
  • Color change: Color change can be separated into changes that occur during growth and development, and those triggered by mood, social context, or abiotic factors such as temperature. The latter are seen in many taxa. Some cephalopods, such as the octopus and the cuttlefish, have specialized skin cells (chromatophores) that can change the apparent colour, opacity, and reflectiveness of their skin.[10] In addition to their use for camouflage, rapid changes in skin color are used while hunting and in courtship rituals.[11] Cuttlefish may display two entirely different signals simultaneously from opposite sides of their body. When a male cuttlefish courts a female in the presence of other males, he displays a male pattern facing the female and a female pattern facing away, to deceive other males.[12] Some color signals occur in cycles. For example, when a female olive baboon begins to ovulate, her anogenital area swells and turns a bright red/pink. This signals to males that she is ready to mate.[13] Humboldt squid are bioluminescent and thus capable of communicating visually in dark ocean environments.[14]
  • Bioluminescent communication: Communication by the production of light occurs commonly in vertebrates and invertebrates in the oceans, particularly at depths (e.g. angler fish). Two well known forms of land bioluminescence occur in fireflies and glow worms. Other insects, insect larvae, annelids, arachnids and even species of fungi possess bioluminescent abilities. Some bioluminescent animals produce the light themselves whereas others have a symbiotic relationship with bioluminescent bacteria.[15] Animals exhibit bioluminescent light to lure in prey, attract a mate, or protect themselves from potential predators.[16]

Reference

  1. ^ „Animal communication”. Encyclopedia Britannica (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2020-10-31. 
  2. ^ Seyfarth, Robert M.; Cheney, Dorothy L. (2003-02-01). „Signalers and Receivers in Animal Communication”. Annual Review of Psychology. 54 (1): 145—173. ISSN 0066-4308. PMID 12359915. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145121. 
  3. ^ Maynard-Smith and Harper, 2003
  4. ^ Tinbergen, N.; Perdeck, A. C. (1951-01-01). „On the Stimulus Situation Releasing the Begging Response in the Newly Hatched Herring Gull Chick (Larus Argentatus Argentatus Pont.)”. Behaviour (на језику: енглески). 3 (1): 1—39. ISSN 0005-7959. doi:10.1163/156853951X00197. 
  5. ^ Pollick, Amy S.; Waal, Frans B. M. de (2007-05-08). „Ape gestures and language evolution”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (на језику: енглески). 104 (19): 8184—8189. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.8184P. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1876592 Слободан приступ. PMID 17470779. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702624104 Слободан приступ. 
  6. ^ „Facial display and blushing: Means of visual communication in blue-and-yellow macaws (Ara Ararauna)?” (на језику: енглески). ProQuest 2091762411. 
  7. ^ Mogil, Jeffrey S. (април 2009). „Animal models of pain: progress and challenges”. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (на језику: енглески). 10 (4): 283—294. ISSN 1471-003X. PMID 19259101. S2CID 205504814. doi:10.1038/nrn2606. 
  8. ^ а б Shepherd, Stephen V. (2010-03-19). „Following Gaze: Gaze-Following Behavior as a Window into Social Cognition”. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience. 4: 5. ISSN 1662-5145. PMC 2859805 Слободан приступ. PMID 20428494. doi:10.3389/fnint.2010.00005 Слободан приступ. 
  9. ^ Range, Friederike; Virányi, Zsófia (2011-02-23). Wylie, Doug, ур. „Development of Gaze Following Abilities in Wolves (Canis Lupus)”. PLOS ONE (на језику: енглески). 6 (2): e16888. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...616888R. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3044139 Слободан приступ. PMID 21373192. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016888 Слободан приступ. 
  10. ^ Cloney, R.A.; Florey, E. (1968). „Ultrastructure of cephalopod chromatophore organs”. Z. Zellforsch. Mikrosk. Anat. 89 (2): 250—280. PMID 5700268. S2CID 26566732. doi:10.1007/bf00347297. 
  11. ^ Hanlon, R.T.; Messenger, J.B. (1996). Cephalopod Behaviour. Cambridge University Press. стр. 121. ISBN 978-0-521-64583-6. 
  12. ^ Williams, Sarah (2012). „Two-faced fish tricks competitors”. Science Now. Архивирано из оригинала 8. 3. 2013. г. Приступљено 16. 3. 2013. 
  13. ^ Motluk, Alison (2001). „Big Bottom”. New Scientist. 19 (7). 
  14. ^ Deep Sea Squid May Communicate Through Glowing Pigmentation, Researchers Find
  15. ^ Mason, Julia (18. 7. 2018). „Glowing in the Deep”. The Dish on Science. 
  16. ^ „Bioluminescence | Smithsonian Ocean”. ocean.si.edu (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 2020-10-25. 

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