Национални историјски парк културе Чако — разлика између измена

Национални историјски парк културе Чако
Национални историјски парк културе Чако
	Велика кива Четра Кетла
Мјесто	САД
Површина	13,750 ha
Основано	1987. године

Интерактиван преглед историје

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Верзија на датум 20. јануар 2023. у 08:48

Национални историјски парк културе Чако (енгл. Chaco Culture National Historical Park) је национални историјски парк који садржи најгушћу концентрацију древних пуеблоса на југозападу САД-a. Парк је смештен на северозападу државе Нови Мексико, између градова Албукерки и Фармингтон, у забаченом кањону који пресеца Чако Вош. У њему се налази највећа количина древних рушевина северно од Мексика, те представља једно од најважнијих предколумбовских локалитета у САД.^[1] Чако кањон је између 900. и 1150. године било важно средиште културе древних Пуебло народа.^[2]

Chacoans quarried sandstone blocks and hauled timber from great distances, assembling fifteen major complexes that remained the largest buildings ever built in North America until the 19th century.^[1]^[3] Evidence of archaeoastronomy at Chaco has been proposed, with the "Sun Dagger" petroglyph at Fajada Butte a popular example. Many Chacoan buildings may have been aligned to capture the solar and lunar cycles,^[4] requiring generations of astronomical observations and centuries of skillfully coordinated construction.^[5] Climate change is thought to have led to the emigration of Chacoans and the eventual abandonment of the canyon, beginning with a fifty-year drought commencing in 1130.^[6]

Comprising a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the arid and sparsely populated Four Corners region, the Chacoan cultural sites are fragile—concerns of erosion caused by tourists have led to the closure of Fajada Butte to the public. The sites are considered sacred ancestral homelands by the Hopi and Pueblo people, who maintain oral accounts of their historical migration from Chaco and their spiritual relationship to the land.^[7]^[8] Although park preservation efforts can conflict with native religious beliefs, tribal representatives work closely with the National Park Service to share their knowledge and respect the heritage of the Chacoan culture.^[7]

The park is on the Trails of the Ancients Byway, one of the designated New Mexico Scenic Byways.^[9]

Географија

Chaco Canyon lies within the San Juan Basin, atop the vast Colorado Plateau, surrounded by the Chuska Mountains to the west, the San Juan Mountains to the north, and the San Pedro Mountains to the east. Ancient Chacoans drew upon dense forests of oak, piñon, ponderosa pine, and juniper to obtain timber and other resources. The canyon itself, located within lowlands circumscribed by dune fields, ridges, and mountains, is aligned along a roughly northwest-to-southeast axis and is rimmed by flat massifs known as mesas. Large gaps between the southwestern cliff faces—side canyons known as rincons—were critical in funneling rain-bearing storms into the canyon and boosting local precipitation levels.^[10] The principal Chacoan complexes, such as Pueblo Bonito, Nuevo Alto, and Kin Kletso, have elevations of 6.200 to 6.440 ft (1.890 to 1.960 m).

The alluvial canyon floor slopes downward to the northwest at a gentle grade of 30 ft/mi (6 m/km); it is bisected by the Chaco Wash, an arroyo that rarely bears water. The canyon's main aquifers were too deep to be of use to ancient Chacoans: only several smaller and shallower sources supported the small springs that sustained them.^[11]

Геологија

After the Pangaean supercontinent sundered during the Cretaceous period, the region became part of a shifting transition zone between a shallow inland sea—the Western Interior Seaway—and a band of plains and low hills to the west. A sandy and swampy coastline oscillated east and west, alternately submerging and uncovering the area atop the present Colorado Plateau that Chaco Canyon now occupies.^[12]

The Chaco Wash flowed across the upper strata of what is now the 400 ft (120 m) Chacra Mesa, cutting into it and gouging out a broad canyon over the course of millions of years. The mesa comprises sandstone and shale formations dating from the Late Cretaceous,^[13] which are of the Mesaverde Group.^[12] The canyon bottomlands were further eroded, exposing Menefee Shale bedrock; this was subsequently buried under roughly 125 ft (38 m) of sediment. The canyon and mesa lie within the "Chaco Core"—which is distinct from the wider Chaco Plateau, a flat region of grassland with infrequent stands of timber. As the Continental Divide is only 155 mi (249 km) east of the canyon, geological characteristics and different patterns of drainage differentiate these two regions both from each other and from the nearby Chaco Slope, the Gobernador Slope, and the Chuska Valley.^[14]

Клима

An arid region of high xeric scrubland and desert steppe, the canyon and wider basin average 8 in (200 mm) of rainfall annually; the park averages 91 in (2.300 mm). Chaco Canyon lies on the leeward side of extensive mountain ranges to the south and west, resulting in a rainshadow effect that fosters the prevailing lack of moisture in the region.^[15] The region sees four distinct seasons. Rainfall is most likely between July and September, while May and June are the driest months. Orographic precipitation, which results from moisture wrung out of storm systems ascending the mountain ranges around Chaco Canyon, is responsible for most of the summer and winter precipitation, and rainfall increases with higher elevation.^[13]

Chaco endures remarkable climatic extremes: temperatures range between −38 to 102 °F (−39 to 39 °C),^[16] and may swing 60 °F (33 °C) in a single day.^[7] The region averages fewer than 150 frost-free days per year, and the local climate swings wildly from years of plentiful rainfall to prolonged drought.^[17] The heavy influence of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation contributes to the canyon's fickle climate.^[16]

Референце

^ ^а ^б Strutin 1994, стр. 6.
^ Fagan 2005, стр. 50–55.
^ Fagan 2005, стр. 35.
^ Fagan 1998, стр. 177–182.
^ Sofaer 1997.
^ Fagan 2005, стр. 198.
^ ^а ^б ^в National Park Service.
^ Sofaer & Dibble 1999.
^ Trail of the Ancients. Архивирано август 21, 2014 на сајту Wayback Machine New Mexico Tourism Department. Retrieved August 14, 2014.
^ Fagan 2005, стр. 5.
^ Fagan 2005, стр. 43.
^ ^а ^б Hopkins 2003, стр. 240.
^ ^а ^б Fagan 2005, стр. 47.
^ Fagan 2005, стр. 46–47.
^ Fagan 2005, стр. 44.
^ ^а ^б Fagan 2005, стр. 45.
^ Frazier 2005, стр. 181.

Литература

English, N. B.; Betancourt, J.; Dean, J. S.; Quade, J. (2001), „Strontium isotopes reveal distant sources of architectural timber in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98 (21): 11891—96, Bibcode:2001PNAS...9811891E, PMC 59738 , PMID 11572943, doi:10.1073/pnas.211305498 
Brugge, David M.; Hayes, A.; Judge, W. James (1988), Archeological Surveys of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, University of New Mexico Press (објављено фебруар 1988), ISBN 978-0826310293
Diamond, Jared (2005), Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (1st изд.), Viking (објављено 29. 12. 2004), ISBN 978-0670033379
Elliott, Melinda (1995), Great Excavations: Tales of Early Southwestern Archaeology, 1888–1939 (1st изд.), School of American Research Press (објављено 15. 8. 1995), ISBN 978-0933452435
Fagan, Brian Murray (2005), Chaco Canyon: Archaeologists Explore the Lives of an Ancient Society, Oxford University Press (објављено 1. 5. 2005), ISBN 978-0195170436
Fagan, Brian Murray (1998), From Black Land to Fifth Sun: The Science of Sacred Sites, Basic Books (објављено 9. 4. 1999), ISBN 978-0738201412
Frazier, Kendrick (2005), People of Chaco: A Canyon and Its Culture, Norton, ISBN 978-0393318258
Hopkins, Ralph Lee (2003), Hiking the Southwest's Geology: Four Corners Region, Mountaineers Books (објављено 15. 1. 2003), ISBN 978-0898868562
Kelley, David H.; Milone, Eugene F. (2004), Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy (1st изд.), Springer (објављено 19. 11. 2004), ISBN 978-0387953106
LeBlanc, Steven A. (1999), Prehistoric Warfare in the American Southwest (1st изд.), Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press (објављено 9. 2. 1999), ISBN 978-0874805819
Magli, Giulio. (2009), Mysteries and Discoveries of Archaeoastronomy: From Giza to Easter Island (1st изд.), Springer (објављено 28. 4. 2009), ISBN 978-0387765648
Noble, David Grant (1984), New Light on Chaco Canyon (1st изд.), School of American Research Press (објављено август 1984), ISBN 978-0933452107
Noble, David Grant (2000), Ancient Ruins of the Southwest: An Archaeological Guide, Cooper Square Publishing (објављено 1. 1. 2000), ISBN 978-0873587242
Reed, Paul F. (2004). The Puebloan Society of Chaco Canyon. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32720-9. Архивирано из оригинала 2014-04-20. г. Приступљено 2012-07-15.
Reynolds, A.; Betancourt, J.; Quade, J.; Patchett, P. Jonathan; Dean, Jeffrey S.; Stein, John (2005), „⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr Sourcing of Ponderosa Pine Used in Anasazi Great House Construction at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico” (PDF), Journal of Archaeological Science, 32 (7): 1061—75, doi:10.1016/j.jas.2005.01.016, Архивирано из оригинала (PDF) 26. 3. 2009. г., Приступљено 21. 8. 2009
Sofaer, Annа (1997), The Primary Architecture of the Chacoan Culture: A Cosmological Expression, University of New Mexico Press, Архивирано из оригинала 23. 7. 2009. г., Приступљено 21. 8. 2009
Sofaer, A.; Dibble, M. (1999), „The Mystery of Chaco Canyon”, The Solstice Project, Bullfrog Films, Приступљено 15. 6. 2011
Strutin, M. (1994), Chaco: A Cultural Legacy, Southwest Parks and Monuments Association (објављено јун 1994), ISBN 978-1877856457, „photography by George H. H. Huey.”
Stuart, David E (2000), Anasazi America, University of New Mexico Press (објављено 1. 5. 2000), ISBN 978-0826321794, „research assistance by Susan Moczygemba-McKinsey.”
United States World Heritage Periodic Report: Chaco Culture National Historical Park (Section II) (PDF), National Park Service, 2005, Архивирано (PDF) из оригинала 30. 5. 2009. г., Приступљено 23. 11. 2009
Chaco Culture National Historical Park, National Park Service, 2007, Архивирано из оригинала 30. 7. 2009. г., Приступљено 23. 11. 2009
„Chaco Culture National Historical Park”, National Register of Historic Places, Thoreau, New Mexico: National Park Service (објављено 1966-10-15), 1966, #148900

Спољашње везе

Chaco Culture National Historical Park, National Park Service
„Chaco Research Archive”, University of Virginia
„Chaco Culture National Historical Park”, A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary: American Southwest, National Park Service
„Ancient Observatories: Chaco Canyon”, Exploratorium, Архивирано из оригинала 30. 6. 2017. г., Приступљено 11. 2. 2006
„The Solstice Project”, Non-profit studying, documenting, and preserving the Sun Dagger, Архивирано из оригинала 11. 6. 2017. г., Приступљено 6. 1. 2006
The Sun Dagger Explorer, The Solstice Project, Архивирано из оригинала 11. 8. 2011. г., Приступљено 17. 9. 2011
„Chaco Canyon National Historical Park”, Traditions of the Sun, University of California, Архивирано из оригинала 28. 7. 2017. г., Приступљено 21. 8. 2009

[FOOTNOTEStrutin19946-1] а ^б Strutin 1994, стр. 6.

[FOOTNOTEFagan200550–55-2] Fagan 2005, стр. 50–55.

[FOOTNOTEFagan200535-3] Fagan 2005, стр. 35.

[FOOTNOTEFagan1998177–182-4] Fagan 1998, стр. 177–182.

[FOOTNOTESofaer1997-5] Sofaer 1997.

[FOOTNOTEFagan2005198-6] Fagan 2005, стр. 198.

[FOOTNOTENational_Park_Service-7] а ^б ^в National Park Service.

[FOOTNOTESofaerDibble1999-8] Sofaer & Dibble 1999.

[NM_TOA-9] Trail of the Ancients. Архивирано август 21, 2014 на сајту Wayback Machine New Mexico Tourism Department. Retrieved August 14, 2014.

[FOOTNOTEFagan20055-10] Fagan 2005, стр. 5.

[FOOTNOTEFagan200543-11] Fagan 2005, стр. 43.

[FOOTNOTEHopkins2003240-12] а ^б Hopkins 2003, стр. 240.

[FOOTNOTEFagan200547-13] а ^б Fagan 2005, стр. 47.

[FOOTNOTEFagan200546–47-14] Fagan 2005, стр. 46–47.

[FOOTNOTEFagan200544-15] Fagan 2005, стр. 44.

[FOOTNOTEFagan200545-16] а ^б Fagan 2005, стр. 45.

[FOOTNOTEFrazier2005181-17] Frazier 2005, стр. 181.

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Нормативна контрола
Међународне	ISNI VIAF
Државне	Немачка Израел Сједињене Државе 2 Чешка 2
Остале	Енциклопедија Британика NARA