Раже — разлика између измена

Раже; Временски распон: тријас – данас PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N
	ђавоља риба, Mobula mobular
	Aetobatus narinari
Научна класификација
Домен:	Eukaryota
Царство:	Animalia
Тип:	Chordata
Класа:	Chondrichthyes
Поткласа:	Elasmobranchii
Надред:	Batoidea; Compagno, 1973
Редови
	Pristiformes; Rajiformes; Torpediniformes;
Синоними
	Batoidimorpha; Myliobatoidea?;

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Верзија на датум 21. мај 2022. у 00:48

Раже (Batoidea) су рушљорибе, рибе са хрскавичавим скелетом, које се одликују јако спљоштеним телом у леђно-трбушном правцу и проширеним грудним перајима која леже сасвим са страна тела чиме доприносе да тело изгледа још шире.

Опис

Имају облик листа или плоче у облику ромба па се често популарно називају морски листови. Крећу се таласастим покретима грудних пераја и слабо су покретне тако да већи део времена проводе заривене у песак на морском дну. Реп им је јако сужен тако да код већине врста личи на бич, а леђно пераје је постављено сасвим уназад.

Горња површина тела је тамније пигментисана и прилагођена боји околине, док је доња страна светлија јер не садржи пигменте. На горњој, леђној страни налазе се очи и спиракулум, а на трбушној су усни отвор, носни отвори и шкржни прорези.

Неке врсте ража на леђима или на репу имају отровну бодљу која служи за одбрану. Друге врсте поседују електрични орган који може изазвати прилично снажан електрични удар на евентуалног нападача. Могу да полажу јаја, која су заштићена чвстом љуском или да рађају живе младунце (вивипарност).

Анатомија

Batoids are flat-bodied, and, like sharks, are cartilaginous fish, meaning they have a boneless skeleton made of a tough, elastic cartilage. Most batoids have five ventral slot-like body openings called gill slits that lead from the gills, but the Hexatrygonidae have six.^[3] Batoid gill slits lie under the pectoral fins on the underside, whereas a shark's are on the sides of the head. Most batoids have a flat, disk-like body, with the exception of the guitarfishes and sawfishes, while most sharks have a spindle-shaped body. Many species of batoid have developed their pectoral fins into broad flat wing-like appendages. The anal fin is absent. The eyes and spiracles are located on top of the head. Batoids have a ventrally located mouth and can considerably protrude their upper jaw (palatoquadrate cartilage) away from the cranium to capture prey.^[4] The jaws have euhyostylic type suspension, which relies completely on the hyomandibular cartilages for support.^[5] Bottom-dwelling batoids breathe by taking water in through the spiracles, rather than through the mouth as most fish do, and passing it outward through the gills.

Репродукција

Batoids reproduce in a number of ways. As is characteristic of elasmobranchs, batoids undergo internal fertilization. Internal fertilization is advantageous to batoids as it conserves sperm, does not expose eggs to consumption by predators, and ensures that all the energy involved in reproduction is retained and not lost to the environment.^[6] All skates and some rays are oviparous (egg laying) while other rays are ovoviviparous, meaning that they give birth to young which develop in a womb but without involvement of a placenta.^[7]

The eggs of oviparous skates are laid in leathery egg cases that are commonly known as mermaid's purses and which often wash up empty on beaches in areas where skates are common.

Capture-induced premature birth and abortion (collectively called capture-induced parturition) occurs frequently in sharks and rays when fished.^[7] Capture-induced parturition is rarely considered in fisheries management despite being shown to occur in at least 12% of live bearing sharks and rays (88 species to date).^[7]

Еволуција

Batoids belong to the ancient lineage of cartilaginous fishes. Fossil denticles (tooth-like scales in the skin) resembling those of today's chondrichthyans date at least as far back as the Ordovician, with the oldest unambiguous fossils of cartilaginous fish dating from the middle Devonian. A clade within this diverse family, the Neoselachii, emerged by the Triassic, with the best-understood neoselachian fossils dating from the Jurassic. The oldest confirmed ray is Antiquaobatis, from the Pliensbachian of Germany.^[9] The clade is represented today by sharks, sawfish, rays and skates.^[10]

Класификација

Надред ража обухвата породице од којих су најзначајније: дрхтуље (Torpedinidae), праве раже (Rajidae), жутуље (Dasyatidae), и морски голубови (Myliobatidae)ч

The classification of batoids is currently undergoing revision; however, molecular evidence refutes the hypothesis that skates and rays are derived sharks.^[11] Nelson's 2006 Fishes of the World recognizes four orders. The Mesozoic Sclerorhynchoidea are basal or incertae sedis; they show features of the Rajiformes but have snouts resembling those of sawfishes. However, evidence indicates they are probably the sister group to sawfishes.^[12] Phylogenetic tree of Batoidea:^[13]

Chondrichthyes

Holocephali (incl. Chimaera)

Elasmobranchii

Batoidea

Torpediniformes

Rhinopristiformes

	Rajiformes

	Myliobatiformes

Selachimorpha (Sharks)

Order	Image	Common name	Family	Genera	Species				Comment
Order	Image	Common name	Family	Genera	Total				Comment
Myliobatiformes		Stingrays and relatives	10	29	223	1	16	33	^[а]^[14]
Rajiformes		Skates and relatives	5	36	270	4	12	26	^[б]
Torpediniformes		Electric rays	4	12	69	2		9	^[в]^[15]
Rhinopristiformes		Shovelnose rays and relatives	1	2	5-7	3-5	2		^[г]^[16]

Order Torpediniformes

Family Hypnidae
Family Narcinidae
Family Narkidae
Family Torpedinidae

Order Rhinopristiformes

Family Glaucostegidae
Family Platyrhinidae*
Family Pristidae
Family Rhinidae
Family Rhinobatidae
Family Trygonorrhinidae
Family Zanobatidae*

* the placement of these families is uncertain

Order Rajiformes

Order Myliobatiformes

Family Aetobatidae
Family Dasyatidae
Family Gymnuridae
Family Hexatrygonidae
Family Myliobatidae
Family Plesiobatidae
Family Potamotrygonidae
Family Rhinopteridae
Family Urolophidae
Family Urotrygonidae

Напомене

^ Myliobatiformes include stingrays, butterfly rays, eagle rays, and manta rays. They were formerly included in the order Rajiformes, but more-recent phylogenetic studies have shown that they are a monophyletic group, and that its more-derived members evolved their highly flattened shapes independently of the skates.^[14]
^ Rajiformes include skates, guitarfishes, and wedgefishes. They are distinguished by the presence of greatly enlarged pectoral fins, which reach as far forward as the sides of the head, with a generally flattened body. The undulatory pectoral fin motion diagnostic to this taxon is known as rajiform locomotion. The eyes and spiracles are located on the upper surface of the body, and the gill slits on the underside. They have flattened, crushing teeth, and are generally carnivorous. Most species give birth to live young, although some lay eggs inside a protective capsule or mermaid's purse.
^ The electric rays have electric organs in their pectoral fin discs that generate electric current. They are used to immobilize prey and for defense. The current is strong enough to stun humans, and the ancient Greeks and Romans used these fish to treat ailments such as headaches.^[15]
^ The sawfishes are shark-like in form, having tails used for swimming and smaller pectoral fins than most batoids. The pectoral fins are attached above the gills as in all batoids, giving the fishes a broad-headed appearance. They have long, flat snouts with a row of tooth-like projections on either side. The snouts are up to 1.8 metres (6 ft) long, and 30 centimetres (1 ft) wide, and are used for slashing and impaling small fishes and to probe in the mud for embedded animals. Sawfishes can enter freshwater rivers and lakes. Some species reach a total length of 6 metres (20 ft). All species of sawfish are endangered or critically endangered.^[16]

Референце

^ Stevens, J. & Last, P.R. (1998). Paxton, J.R. & Eschmeyer, W.N., ур. Encyclopedia of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press. стр. 60. ISBN 978-0-12-547665-2.
^ Aschliman, Neil C.; Nishida, Mutsumi; Miya, Masaki; Inoue, Jun G.; Rosana, Kerri M.; Naylor, Gavin J.P. (2012). „Body plan convergence in the evolution of skates and rays (Chondrichthyes: Batoidea)”. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 63 (1): 28—42. PMID 22209858. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2011.12.012.
^ Martin, R. Aidan (фебруар 2010). „Batoids: Sawfishes, Guitarfishes, Electric Rays, Skates, and Sting Rays”. Elasmo research. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research.
^ Motta, P.J.; Wilga, C.D. (2001). „Advances in the study of feeding behaviors, mechanisms, and mechanics of sharks”. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 60 (1–3): 131—56. S2CID 28305317. doi:10.1023/A:1007649900712.
^ Wilga, C.A.D. (2008). „Evolutionary divergence in the feeding mechanism of fishes”. Acta Geologica Polonica. 58: 113—20.
^ „Reproduction overall”. Risk Section, Bedford Institute of Oceanography & Marine Fish Species. Canadian Shark Research Lab. Skates and rays of Atlantic Canada. Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Center. Архивирано из оригинала 2015-01-16. г. Приступљено 27. 5. 2012.
^ ^а ^б ^в Adams, Kye R.; Fetterplace, Lachlan C.; Davis, Andrew R.; Taylor, Matthew D.; Knott, Nathan A. (јануар 2018). „Sharks, rays and abortion: The prevalence of capture-induced parturition in elasmobranchs”. Biological Conservation. 217: 11—27. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2017.10.010. Архивирано из оригинала 2019-02-23. г. Приступљено 2018-12-09.
^ Benton, M. J. (2005). Vertebrate Palaeontology (3rd изд.). Blackwell. Fig 7.13 on page 185. ISBN 978-0-632-05637-8.
^ Stumpf, Sebastian; Kriwet, Jürgen (2019). „A new Pliensbachian elasmobranch (Vertebrata, Chondrichthyes) assemblage from Europe, and its contribution to the understanding of late Early Jurassic elasmobranch diversity and distributional patterns”. PalZ. 93 (4): 637—658. doi:10.1007/s12542-019-00451-4 .
^ „Chondrichthyes: Fossil Record”. University of California Museum of Paleontology. U.C. Berkeley.
^ Douady, C.J.; Dosay, M.; Shivji, M.S.; Stanhope, M.J. (2003). „Molecular phylogenetic evidence refuting the hypothesis of Batoidea (rays and skates) as derived sharks”. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 26 (2): 215—221. PMID 12565032. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00333-0.
^ Kriwet, Jürgen. „The systematic position of the Cretaceous sclerorhynchid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii, Pristiorajea)” (PDF).
^ McEachran, J.D.; Aschliman, N. (2004). „Phylogeny of batoidea”. Ур.: Carrier, J.C.; Musick, J.A.; Heithaus, M.R. Biology of sharks and their relatives. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. стр. 79—114.
^ ^а ^б Nelson, J.S. (2006). Fishes of the World (fourth изд.). John Wiley. стр. 69—82. ISBN 978-0-471-25031-9.
^ ^а ^б Bullock, Theodore Holmes; Hopkins, Carl D.; Popper, Arthur N.; Fay, Richard R. (2005). Electroreception. Springer. стр. 5—7. ISBN 978-0-387-23192-1.
^ ^а ^б Faria, Vicente V.; McDavitt, Matthew T.; Charvet, Patricia; Wiley, Tonya R.; Simpfendorfer, Colin A.; Naylor, Gavin J.P. (2013). „Species delineation and global population structure of critically endangered sawfishes (Pristidae)”. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 167: 136—164. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00872.x .

Литература

Брем, Алфред (1982). Живот животиња. Загреб: Просвјета. </ref>
Калезић, М.:Основи морфологије кичмењака, Савремена администрација, Београд, 1995.
Калезић, М.: Хордати, Биолошки факултет Универзитета у Београду, 2000.
Marcon, E., Mongini, M: Све животиње света, ИРО Вук Караџић, Београд, 1986.
Радовић, И., Петров, Бригита: Разноврсност живота 1 - структура и функција, Биолошки факултет Београд и Stylos Нови Сад, Београд, 2001.
Ратајац, Ружица: Зоологија за студенте Пољопривредног факултета, ПМФ у Новом Саду и МП Stylos Нови Сад, 1995.
Stevens, J. & Last, P.R. (1998). Paxton, J.R. & Eschmeyer, W.N., ур. Encyclopedia of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press. стр. 60. ISBN 978-0-12-547665-2.
Stevens, J. & Last, P.R. (1998). Paxton, J.R. & Eschmeyer, W.N., ур. Encyclopedia of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press. стр. 60. ISBN 978-0-12-547665-2.
McEachran, J.D.; Dunn, K.A.; Miyake, T. (1996). „Interrelationships of the batoid fishes (Chondrichthyes: Batoidea)”. Interrelationships of Fishes. Academic Press.
Nelson, Joseph S. (2006). Fishes of the World (4th, illustrated изд.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780471756446.

Спољашње везе

БиоНет Школа
„Shark references”. – database of bibliography of living/fossil sharks and rays (see Chondrichtyes: Selachii) with more than 15 000 listed papers and many download links.
„Rays Fact Sheet”. Rays fact sheet (PDF). Fisheries (Извештај). Recreational fishing. Perth, Australia: Government of Western Australia. Архивирано из оригинала (PDF) 2013-05-13. г.

[15] Myliobatiformes include stingrays, butterfly rays, eagle rays, and manta rays. They were formerly included in the order Rajiformes, but more-recent phylogenetic studies have shown that they are a monophyletic group, and that its more-derived members evolved their highly flattened shapes independently of the skates.^[14]

[16] Rajiformes include skates, guitarfishes, and wedgefishes. They are distinguished by the presence of greatly enlarged pectoral fins, which reach as far forward as the sides of the head, with a generally flattened body. The undulatory pectoral fin motion diagnostic to this taxon is known as rajiform locomotion. The eyes and spiracles are located on the upper surface of the body, and the gill slits on the underside. They have flattened, crushing teeth, and are generally carnivorous. Most species give birth to live young, although some lay eggs inside a protective capsule or mermaid's purse.

[18] The electric rays have electric organs in their pectoral fin discs that generate electric current. They are used to immobilize prey and for defense. The current is strong enough to stun humans, and the ancient Greeks and Romans used these fish to treat ailments such as headaches.^[15]

[20] The sawfishes are shark-like in form, having tails used for swimming and smaller pectoral fins than most batoids. The pectoral fins are attached above the gills as in all batoids, giving the fishes a broad-headed appearance. They have long, flat snouts with a row of tooth-like projections on either side. The snouts are up to 1.8 metres (6 ft) long, and 30 centimetres (1 ft) wide, and are used for slashing and impaling small fishes and to probe in the mud for embedded animals. Sawfishes can enter freshwater rivers and lakes. Some species reach a total length of 6 metres (20 ft). All species of sawfish are endangered or critically endangered.^[16]

[EoF-1] Stevens, J. & Last, P.R. (1998). Paxton, J.R. & Eschmeyer, W.N., ур. Encyclopedia of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press. стр. 60. ISBN 978-0-12-547665-2.

[2] Aschliman, Neil C.; Nishida, Mutsumi; Miya, Masaki; Inoue, Jun G.; Rosana, Kerri M.; Naylor, Gavin J.P. (2012). „Body plan convergence in the evolution of skates and rays (Chondrichthyes: Batoidea)”. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 63 (1): 28—42. PMID 22209858. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2011.12.012.

[3] Martin, R. Aidan (фебруар 2010). „Batoids: Sawfishes, Guitarfishes, Electric Rays, Skates, and Sting Rays”. Elasmo research. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research.

[4] Motta, P.J.; Wilga, C.D. (2001). „Advances in the study of feeding behaviors, mechanisms, and mechanics of sharks”. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 60 (1–3): 131—56. S2CID 28305317. doi:10.1023/A:1007649900712.

[5] Wilga, C.A.D. (2008). „Evolutionary divergence in the feeding mechanism of fishes”. Acta Geologica Polonica. 58: 113—20.

[AtlanCan-6] „Reproduction overall”. Risk Section, Bedford Institute of Oceanography & Marine Fish Species. Canadian Shark Research Lab. Skates and rays of Atlantic Canada. Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Center. Архивирано из оригинала 2015-01-16. г. Приступљено 27. 5. 2012.

[Adams-7] а ^б ^в Adams, Kye R.; Fetterplace, Lachlan C.; Davis, Andrew R.; Taylor, Matthew D.; Knott, Nathan A. (јануар 2018). „Sharks, rays and abortion: The prevalence of capture-induced parturition in elasmobranchs”. Biological Conservation. 217: 11—27. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2017.10.010. Архивирано из оригинала 2019-02-23. г. Приступљено 2018-12-09.

[8] Benton, M. J. (2005). Vertebrate Palaeontology (3rd изд.). Blackwell. Fig 7.13 on page 185. ISBN 978-0-632-05637-8.

[9] Stumpf, Sebastian; Kriwet, Jürgen (2019). „A new Pliensbachian elasmobranch (Vertebrata, Chondrichthyes) assemblage from Europe, and its contribution to the understanding of late Early Jurassic elasmobranch diversity and distributional patterns”. PalZ. 93 (4): 637—658. doi:10.1007/s12542-019-00451-4 .

[10] „Chondrichthyes: Fossil Record”. University of California Museum of Paleontology. U.C. Berkeley.

[11] Douady, C.J.; Dosay, M.; Shivji, M.S.; Stanhope, M.J. (2003). „Molecular phylogenetic evidence refuting the hypothesis of Batoidea (rays and skates) as derived sharks”. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 26 (2): 215—221. PMID 12565032. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00333-0.

[12] Kriwet, Jürgen. „The systematic position of the Cretaceous sclerorhynchid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii, Pristiorajea)” (PDF).

[13] McEachran, J.D.; Aschliman, N. (2004). „Phylogeny of batoidea”. Ур.: Carrier, J.C.; Musick, J.A.; Heithaus, M.R. Biology of sharks and their relatives. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. стр. 79—114.

[nelson-14] а ^б Nelson, J.S. (2006). Fishes of the World (fourth изд.). John Wiley. стр. 69—82. ISBN 978-0-471-25031-9.

[bullock-17] а ^б Bullock, Theodore Holmes; Hopkins, Carl D.; Popper, Arthur N.; Fay, Richard R. (2005). Electroreception. Springer. стр. 5—7. ISBN 978-0-387-23192-1.

[Faria_etal_2013-19] а ^б Faria, Vicente V.; McDavitt, Matthew T.; Charvet, Patricia; Wiley, Tonya R.; Simpfendorfer, Colin A.; Naylor, Gavin J.P. (2013). „Species delineation and global population structure of critically endangered sawfishes (Pristidae)”. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 167: 136—164. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00872.x .

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Нормативна контрола
Државне	Немачка Израел Сједињене Државе Јапан
Остале	Енциклопедија Британика