Склеренхим

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Flax stem cross-section:
Pith
Protoxylem
Xylem I
Phloem I
Sclerenchyma (bast fibre)
Cortex
Epidermis

Склеренхим је ткиво састављено из ћелија чији су зидови јако и равномерно задебљали, који су целулозни или чешће лигнификовани, то јест одрвенели. Склеренхими су у дефинитивном стању мртве ћелије и налазе се у старијим деловима биљке које су завршиле са растењем, не садрже протопласт и лумен ћелије је испуњен ваздухом.^[1] Склеренхим се дели на: склеренимске ћелије и склеренхимска влакна.

Parenchyma cells have thin primary walls and usually remain alive after they become mature. Parenchyma forms the "filler" tissue in the soft parts of plants, and is usually present in cortex, pericycle, pith, and medullary rays in primary stem and root.
Collenchyma cells have thin primary walls with some areas of secondary thickening. Collenchyma provides extra mechanical and structural support, particularly in regions of new growth.
Sclerenchyma cells have thick lignified secondary walls and often die when mature. Sclerenchyma provides the main structural support to a plant.^[2]

Паренхим

Parenchyma is a versatile ground tissue that generally constitutes the "filler" tissue in soft parts of plants. It forms, among other things, the cortex (outer region) and pith (central region) of stems, the cortex of roots, the mesophyll of leaves, the pulp of fruits, and the endosperm of seeds. Parenchyma cells are often living cells and may remain meristematic at maturity—meaning that they are capable of cell division if stimulated. They have thin and flexible cellulose cell walls, and are generally polyhedral when close-packed, but can be roughly spherical when isolated from their neighbours. Parenchyma cells are generally large. They have large central vacuoles, which allow the cells to store and regulate ions, waste products, and water. Tissue specialised for food storage is commonly formed of parenchyma cells.

Cross section of a leaf showing various ground tissue types

Parenchyma cells have a variety of functions:

In leaves, they form two layers of mesophyll cells immediately beneath the epidermis of the leaf, that are responsible for photosynthesis and the exchange of gases.^[3] These layers are called the palisade parenchyma and spongy mesophyll. Palisade parenchyma cells can be either cuboidal or elongated. Parenchyma cells in the mesophyll of leaves are specialised parenchyma cells called chlorenchyma cells (parenchyma cells with chloroplasts). Parenchyma cells are also found in other parts of the plant.
Storage of starch, protein, fats, oils and water in roots, tubers (e.g. potatoes), seed endosperm (e.g. cereals) and cotyledons (e.g. pulses and peanuts)
Secretion (e.g. the parenchyma cells lining the inside of resin ducts)
Wound repair and the potential for renewed meristematic activity
Other specialised functions such as aeration (aerenchyma) provides buoyancy and helps aquatic plants float.
Chlorenchyma cells carry out photosynthesis and manufacture food.

The shape of parenchyma cells varies with their function. In the spongy mesophyll of a leaf, parenchyma cells range from near-spherical and loosely arranged with large intercellular spaces,^[3] to branched or stellate, mutually interconnected with their neighbours at the ends of their arms to form a three-dimensional network, like in the red kidney bean Phaseolus vulgaris and other mesophytes.^[4] These cells, along with the epidermal guard cells of the stoma, form a system of air spaces and chambers that regulate the exchange of gases. In some works, the cells of the leaf epidermis are regarded as specialised parenchymal cells,^[5] but the modern preference has long been to classify the epidermis as plant dermal tissue, and parenchyma as ground tissue.^[6]

Shapes of parenchyma:

Polyhedral (found in pallisade tissue of the leaf)
Spherical
Stellate (found in stem of plants and have well developed air spaces between them)
Elongated (also found in pallisade tissue of leaf)
Lobed (found in spongy and pallisade mesophyll tissue of some plants)

Коленхим

Collenchyma tissue is composed of elongated cells with irregularly thickened walls. They provide structural support, particularly in growing shoots and leaves. Collenchyma tissue makes up things such as the resilient strands in stalks of celery. Collenchyma cells are usually living, and have only a thick primary cell wall^[7] made up of cellulose and pectin. Cell wall thickness is strongly affected by mechanical stress upon the plant. The walls of collenchyma in shaken plants (to mimic the effects of wind etc.), may be 40–100% thicker than those not shaken.

There are four main types of collenchyma:

Angular collenchyma (thickened at intercellular contact points)
Tangential collenchyma (cells arranged into ordered rows and thickened at the tangential face of the cell wall)
Annular collenchyma (uniformly thickened cell walls)
Lacunar collenchyma (collenchyma with intercellular spaces)

Collenchyma cells are most often found adjacent to outer growing tissues such as the vascular cambium and are known for increasing structural support and integrity.

The first use of "collenchyma"^[8]^[9] was by Link (1837) who used it to describe the sticky substance on Bletia (Orchidaceae) pollen. Complaining about Link's excessive nomenclature, Schleiden (1839) stated mockingly that the term "collenchyma" could have more easily been used to describe elongated sub-epidermal cells with unevenly thickened cell walls.^[10]

Склеренхим is the tissue which makes the plant hard and stiff. Sclerenchyma is the supporting tissue in plants. Two types of sclerenchyma cells exist: fibers cellular and sclereids. Their cell walls consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Sclerenchyma cells are the principal supporting cells in plant tissues that have ceased elongation. Sclerenchyma fibers are of great economic importance, since they constitute the source material for many fabrics (e.g. flax, hemp, jute, and ramie).

Unlike the collenchyma, mature sclerenchyma is composed of dead cells with extremely thick cell walls (secondary walls) that make up to 90% of the whole cell volume. The term sclerenchyma is derived from the Greek σκληρός (sklērós), meaning "hard." It is the hard, thick walls that make sclerenchyma cells important strengthening and supporting elements in plant parts that have ceased elongation. The difference between sclereids is not always clear: transitions do exist, sometimes even within the same plant.

Склеренхимске ћелије

Склереиди су обично изодијаметричног облика. Ћелијски зидови су јако задебљали, одрвенели и показују јасну слојевитост. У зидовима се налазе јамице, које имају изглед каналића услед велике дебљине ћелијског зида. У диференцираном стању ћелије склереида су мртве, а њихов лумен је сведен на уску пукотину и испуњен је ваздухом. Склеренхимске ћелије углавном граде компактна ткива, али се јављају и појединачно и тада представљају идиобласте. Постоје више врста склереида и то: брахисклереиди, макросклереиди, остеосклереиди и астросклереиди.^[11] Брахисклереиди су изодијаметричне ћелије, груписане су у веће или мање групе и настају задебљавањем ћелијских зидова паренхимских ћелија. Налазе се у разним органима: у меснатом делу плода, у коштицама, семењачи. Могу да се нађу у кори јеле и бора, плодовима дуње и крушке (камене ћелије), коштици вишње и шљиве. Макросклереиди цилиндручног облика и усправно постављени према површини налазе се у семењачи пасуља. Остеосклереиди имају ћелије на крајевима проширене и због тога личе на бутну кост. Астрослереиди су звездастог облика, а налазе се у кори јеле и ариша, у листовима чаја и маслине.

Склеренхимска влакна

Издужене, узане ћелије са ушиљеним крајевима. Ћелијски зидови су дебели, а ћелијски лумен је услед тога јако смањен. Обично имају косо постављене пукотинасте јамице. Склеренхимска влакна обухватају две врсте влакана и то: ликина и дрвена влакна. Склеренхимска влакна која се налазе у кори и ситастом делу прводног снопића (флоему) су јако дугачка, мембране су им дебеле, али слабо одрвенеле (конопља, коприва) или остају до краја целулозне (лан). Ове механичке ћелије називају је ликина влакна. Склеренхимска влакна која се налазе у дрвету и судовном делу проводног снопића (ксилему) су знатно краћа, а мембране су им увек одрвенеле. Ове ћелије се називају дрвена влакна или либриформ.

Референце

^ Којић М.(2004) "Ботаника",Београд;pp. 113.
^ Mauseth 2012, стр. 98–103.
^ ^а ^б „Leaves”. Архивирано из оригинала 2007-10-11. г. Приступљено 2012-05-18.
^ Jeffree CE, Read N, Smith JAC and Dale JE (1987). Water droplets and ice deposits in leaf intercellular spaces: redistribution of water during cryofixation for scanning electron microscopy. Planta 172, 20-37
^ Hill, J. Ben; Overholts, Lee O; Popp, Henry W. Grove Jr., Alvin R. Botany. A textbook for colleges. Publisher: MacGraw-Hill 1960
^ Evert, Ray F; Eichhorn, Susan E. Esau's Plant Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development. Publisher: Wiley-Liss 2006. ISBN 978-0-471-73843-5
^ Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2008). Biology (8th изд.). Pearson Education, Inc. стр. 744—745. ISBN 978-0-321-54325-7.
^ „Collenchyma”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Приступљено 2016-01-21.
^ „collenchyma”. Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Приступљено 2016-01-21.
^ Leroux O. 2012. Collenchyma: a versatile mechanical tissue with dynamic cell walls. Annals of Botany 110 (6): 1083-98.
^ Светлана А.(2016) "Практикум из пољопривредне ботанике", Београд;рр.21.

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[1] Којић М.(2004) "Ботаника",Београд;pp. 113.

[FOOTNOTEMauseth201298–103-2] Mauseth 2012, стр. 98–103.

[Leaves-3] а ^б „Leaves”. Архивирано из оригинала 2007-10-11. г. Приступљено 2012-05-18.

[Jeffree_etal.-4] Jeffree CE, Read N, Smith JAC and Dale JE (1987). Water droplets and ice deposits in leaf intercellular spaces: redistribution of water during cryofixation for scanning electron microscopy. Planta 172, 20-37

[HOPG-5] Hill, J. Ben; Overholts, Lee O; Popp, Henry W. Grove Jr., Alvin R. Botany. A textbook for colleges. Publisher: MacGraw-Hill 1960

[RayEic-6] Evert, Ray F; Eichhorn, Susan E. Esau's Plant Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development. Publisher: Wiley-Liss 2006. ISBN 978-0-471-73843-5

[Biology.-7] Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2008). Biology (8th изд.). Pearson Education, Inc. стр. 744—745. ISBN 978-0-321-54325-7.

[8] „Collenchyma”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Приступљено 2016-01-21.

[9] „collenchyma”. Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Приступљено 2016-01-21.

[10] Leroux O. 2012. Collenchyma: a versatile mechanical tissue with dynamic cell walls. Annals of Botany 110 (6): 1083-98.

[11] Светлана А.(2016) "Практикум из пољопривредне ботанике", Београд;рр.21.

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@@ Ред 1: / Ред 1: @@
+{{short description|Разна неваскуларна ткива у биљкама}}{{rut}}
-'''Склеренхим''' је [[ткива|ткиво]] састављено из [[Ћелија (биологија)|ћелија]] чији су зидови јако и равномерно задебљали, који су целулозни или чешће лигнификовани, то јест одрвенели. Склеренхими су у дефинитивном стању мртве ћелије и налазе се у старијим деловима биљке које су завршиле са растењем, не садрже [[протопласт]] и лумен ћелије је испуњен ваздухом.<ref>Којић М.(2004) "Ботаника",Београд;pp. 113.</ref>
+[[File:Stem-histology-cross-section-tag.svg|thumb|right|250px|[[Flax]] stem cross-section:
+{{ordered list|
+| [[Pith]]
+| [[Protoxylem]]
+| [[Xylem]] I
+| [[Phloem]] I
+| [[#Sclerenchyma|Sclerenchyma]] ([[bast fibre]])
+| [[cortex (botany)|Cortex]]
+| [[epidermis (botany)|Epidermis]]}}
+]]
+'''Склеренхим''' је [[Ткиво (биологија)|ткиво]] састављено из [[Ћелија (биологија)|ћелија]] чији су зидови јако и равномерно задебљали, који су целулозни или чешће лигнификовани, то јест одрвенели. Склеренхими су у дефинитивном стању мртве ћелије и налазе се у старијим деловима биљке које су завршиле са растењем, не садрже [[протопласт]] и лумен ћелије је испуњен ваздухом.<ref>Којић М.(2004) "Ботаника",Београд;pp. 113.</ref> Склеренхим се дели на: склеренимске ћелије и склеренхимска влакна.
-Склеренхим се дели на:
-*Склеренимске ћелије
-*Склеренхимска влакна
+# '''Parenchyma''' cells have thin [[primary wall]]s and usually remain alive after they become mature. Parenchyma forms the "filler" tissue in the soft parts of plants, and is usually present in [[Cortex (botany)|cortex]], [[pericycle]], [[pith]], and [[Medullary ray (botany)|medullary rays]] in primary [[Plant stem|stem]] and [[root]].
-== Склеренхимске ћелије ==
+# '''Collenchyma''' cells have thin primary walls with some areas of secondary thickening. Collenchyma provides extra mechanical and structural support, particularly in regions of new growth.
+# '''Sclerenchyma''' cells have thick [[Lignin|lignified]] [[Secondary cell wall|secondary walls]] and often die when mature. Sclerenchyma provides the main structural support to a plant.{{sfn|Mauseth|2012|pp=98–103}}
+== Паренхим ==
+[[Parenchyma]] is a versatile ground tissue that generally constitutes the "filler" tissue in soft parts of plants. It forms, among other things, the [[cortex (botany)|cortex]] (outer region) and [[pith]] (central region) of stems, the cortex of roots, the [[Leaf#Mesophyll|mesophyll]] of leaves, the pulp of fruits, and the [[endosperm]] of [[seeds]]. Parenchyma cells are often living cells and may remain [[meristematic]] at maturity—meaning that they are capable of [[cell division]] if stimulated. They have thin and flexible [[cellulose]] [[cell wall]]s, and are generally [[polyhedron|polyhedral]] when close-packed, but can be roughly spherical when isolated from their neighbours. Parenchyma cells are generally large. They have large [[central vacuole]]s, which allow the cells to store and regulate [[ions]], waste products, and [[water]]. Tissue specialised for food storage is commonly formed of parenchyma cells.
+{{Plain image with caption|Plant cell types.svg|Cross section of a leaf showing various ground tissue types|600px|right}}
+Parenchyma cells have a variety of functions:
+* In [[leaf|leaves]], they form two layers of [[Leaf#Mesophyll|mesophyll]] cells immediately beneath the epidermis of the leaf, that are responsible for [[photosynthesis]] and the exchange of gases.<ref name="Leaves">{{Cite web |url=http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/sci_ed/grade10/anatomy/leaves.htm |title=Leaves<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2012-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011014822/http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/sci_ed/grade10/anatomy/leaves.htm |archive-date=2007-10-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref> These layers are called the palisade parenchyma and spongy mesophyll. Palisade parenchyma cells can be either cuboidal or elongated. Parenchyma cells in the [[Leaf#Mesophyll|mesophyll]] of leaves are specialised parenchyma cells called chlorenchyma cells (parenchyma cells with chloroplasts). Parenchyma cells are also found in other parts of the plant.
+* Storage of starch, protein, fats, oils and water in roots, tubers (e.g. [[potatoes]]), seed [[endosperm]] (e.g. [[cereal]]s) and [[cotyledon]]s (e.g. [[pulses]] and [[peanut]]s)
+* [[Secretion]] (e.g. the parenchyma cells lining the inside of [[Resin canal|resin ducts]])
+* Wound repair and the potential for renewed [[meristematic]] activity
+* Other specialised functions such as [[aeration]] ([[aerenchyma]]) provides buoyancy and helps aquatic plants float.
+* Chlorenchyma cells carry out photosynthesis and manufacture food.
+The shape of parenchyma cells varies with their function. In the spongy [[Leaf#Mesophyll|mesophyll]] of a leaf, parenchyma cells range from near-spherical and loosely arranged with large intercellular spaces,<ref name="Leaves" /> to branched or [[Stellate cell|stellate]], mutually interconnected with their neighbours at the ends of their arms to form a three-dimensional network, like in the red kidney bean ''[[Phaseolus vulgaris]]'' and other [[mesophyte]]s.<ref name="Jeffree etal.">Jeffree CE, Read N, Smith JAC and Dale JE (1987). Water droplets and ice deposits in leaf intercellular spaces: redistribution of water during cryofixation for scanning electron microscopy. Planta 172, 20-37</ref> These cells, along with the [[Epidermis (botany)|epidermal]] [[guard cell]]s of the [[stoma]], form a system of air spaces and chambers that regulate the exchange of gases. In some works, the cells of the leaf epidermis are regarded as specialised parenchymal cells,<ref name= "HOPG">Hill, J. Ben; Overholts, Lee O; Popp, Henry W. Grove Jr., Alvin R. Botany. A textbook for colleges. Publisher: MacGraw-Hill 1960</ref> but the modern preference has long been to classify the epidermis as [[Epidermis (botany)|plant dermal tissue]], and parenchyma as ground tissue.<ref name="RayEic">Evert, Ray F; Eichhorn, Susan E. Esau's Plant Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development. Publisher: Wiley-Liss 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-471-73843-5}}</ref>
+Shapes of parenchyma:
+* Polyhedral (found in pallisade tissue of the leaf)
+* Spherical
+* Stellate (found in stem of plants and have well developed air spaces between them)
+* Elongated (also found in pallisade tissue of leaf)
+* Lobed (found in spongy and pallisade mesophyll tissue of some plants)
+== Коленхим ==
+[[File:Plant cell type collenchyma.png|thumb|Cross section of collenchyma cells]]
+Collenchyma tissue is composed of elongated cells with irregularly thickened [[cell wall|walls]]. They provide structural support, particularly in growing [[shoot]]s and [[leaf|leaves]]. Collenchyma tissue makes up things such as the resilient strands in stalks of [[celery]]. Collenchyma cells are usually living, and have only a thick [[primary cell wall]]<ref name=Biology.>{{cite book|title=Biology|last=Campbell|first=Neil A.|author-link=Neil A. Campbell|last2=Reece|first2=Jane B.|author-link2=Jane Reece|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|isbn=978-0-321-54325-7|pages=744–745|edition=8th}}</ref> made up of cellulose and pectin. Cell wall thickness is strongly affected by mechanical stress upon the plant. The walls of collenchyma in shaken plants (to mimic the effects of wind etc.), may be 40–100% thicker than those not shaken.
+There are four main types of collenchyma:
+* Angular collenchyma (thickened at intercellular contact points)
+* Tangential collenchyma (cells arranged into ordered rows and thickened at the tangential face of the cell wall)
+* Annular collenchyma (uniformly thickened cell walls)
+* Lacunar collenchyma (collenchyma with intercellular spaces)
+Collenchyma cells are most often found adjacent to outer growing tissues such as the [[vascular cambium]] and are known for increasing structural support and integrity.
+The first use of "collenchyma"{{refn|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|access-date=2016-01-21|collenchyma}}}}{{refn|{{OxfordDictionaries.com|access-date=2016-01-21|collenchyma}}}} was by [[Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link|Link]] (1837) who used it to describe the sticky substance on ''[[Bletia]]'' (Orchidaceae) pollen. Complaining about Link's excessive nomenclature, [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden|Schleiden]] (1839) stated mockingly that the term "collenchyma" could have more easily been used to describe elongated sub-epidermal cells with unevenly thickened cell walls.<ref>Leroux O. 2012. Collenchyma: a versatile mechanical tissue with dynamic cell walls. Annals of Botany 110 (6): 1083-98.</ref>
+== Склеренхим ==
+Склеренхим is the tissue which makes the plant hard and stiff. Sclerenchyma is the supporting tissue in [[plant]]s. Two types of sclerenchyma cells exist: fibers cellular and [[sclereid]]s. Their [[cell wall]]s consist of [[cellulose]], [[hemicellulose]], and [[lignin]]. Sclerenchyma cells are the principal supporting cells in plant tissues that have ceased elongation. Sclerenchyma fibers are of great economic importance, since they constitute the source material for many fabrics (e.g. [[flax]], [[hemp]], [[jute]], and [[ramie]]).
+Unlike the collenchyma, mature sclerenchyma is composed of dead cells with extremely thick cell walls ([[Secondary cell wall|secondary walls]]) that make up to 90% of the whole cell volume. The term ''sclerenchyma'' is derived from the Greek σκληρός (''sklērós''), meaning "hard." It is the hard, thick walls that make sclerenchyma cells important strengthening and supporting elements in plant parts that have ceased elongation. The difference between sclereids is not always clear: transitions do exist, sometimes even within the same plant.
+=== Склеренхимске ћелије ===
 [[Склереиди]] су обично изодијаметричног облика. [[Ћелијски зид|Ћелијски зидови]] су јако задебљали, одрвенели и показују јасну слојевитост. У зидовима се налазе јамице, које имају изглед каналића услед велике дебљине ћелијског зида. У диференцираном стању ћелије склереида су мртве, а њихов лумен је сведен на уску пукотину и испуњен је ваздухом. Склеренхимске ћелије углавном граде компактна ткива, али се јављају и појединачно и тада представљају [[идиобласте]]. Постоје више врста склереида и то: брахисклереиди, макросклереиди, остеосклереиди и астросклереиди.<ref>Светлана А.(2016) "Практикум из пољопривредне ботанике", Београд;рр.21.</ref>
 Брахисклереиди су изодијаметричне ћелије, груписане су у веће или мање групе и настају задебљавањем ћелијских зидова паренхимских ћелија. Налазе се у разним органима: у меснатом делу плода, у коштицама, семењачи. Могу да се нађу у кори јеле и бора, плодовима дуње и крушке (камене ћелије), коштици вишње и шљиве. Макросклереиди цилиндручног облика и усправно постављени према површини налазе се у семењачи пасуља. Остеосклереиди имају ћелије на крајевима проширене и због тога личе на бутну кост. Астрослереиди су звездастог облика, а налазе се у кори јеле и ариша, у листовима чаја и маслине.
-== Склеренхимска влакна ==
+=== Склеренхимска влакна ===
 Издужене, узане ћелије са ушиљеним крајевима. Ћелијски зидови су дебели, а ћелијски лумен је услед тога јако смањен. Обично имају косо постављене пукотинасте јамице. Склеренхимска влакна обухватају две врсте влакана и то: ликина и дрвена влакна.
 Склеренхимска влакна која се налазе у кори и ситастом делу [[проводни снопић|прводног снопића]] ([[флоему]]) су јако дугачка, мембране су им дебеле, али слабо одрвенеле (конопља, коприва) или остају до краја целулозне (лан). Ове механичке ћелије називају је ликина влакна.
 Склеренхимска влакна која се налазе у дрвету и судовном делу проводног снопића ([[ксилему]]) су знатно краћа, а мембране су им увек одрвенеле. Ове ћелије се називају дрвена влакна или либриформ.
 == Референце ==
-{{reflist}}
+{{reflist|}}
 == Литература ==
+{{refbegin|30em}}
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+{{refend}}
 {{нормативна контрола}}