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Istorija veštačke inteligencije (VI) began in antiquity, with myths, stories and rumors of artificial beings endowed with intelligence or consciousness by master craftsmen. The seeds of modern AI were planted by philosophers who attempted to describe the process of human thinking as the mechanical manipulation of symbols. This work culminated in the invention of the programmable digital computer in the 1940s, a machine based on the abstract essence of mathematical reasoning. This device and the ideas behind it inspired a handful of scientists to begin seriously discussing the possibility of building an electronic brain.

The field of AI research was founded at a workshop held on the campus of Dartmouth College, USA during the summer of 1956.[1] Those who attended would become the leaders of AI research for decades. Many of them predicted that a machine as intelligent as a human being would exist in no more than a generation, and they were given millions of dollars to make this vision come true.[2]

Eventually, it became obvious that researchers had grossly underestimated the difficulty of the project.[3] In 1974, in response to the criticism from James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from congress, the U.S. and British Governments stopped funding undirected research into artificial intelligence, and the difficult years that followed would later be known as an "AI winter". Seven years later, a visionary initiative by the Japanese Government inspired governments and industry to provide AI with billions of dollars, but by the late 1980s the investors became disillusioned and withdrew funding again.

Investment and interest in AI boomed in the 2020s when machine learning was successfully applied to many problems in academia and industry due to new methods, the application of powerful computer hardware, and the collection of immense data sets.

Precursors

Mythical, fictional, and speculative precursors

Myth and legend

In Greek mythology, Talos was a giant constructed of bronze who acted as guardian for the island of Crete. He would throw boulders at the ships of invaders and would complete 3 circuits around the island's perimeter daily.[4] According to pseudo-Apollodorus' Bibliotheke, Hephaestus forged Talos with the aid of a cyclops and presented the automaton as a gift to Minos.[5] In the Argonautica, Jason and the Argonauts defeated him by way of a single plug near his foot which, once removed, allowed the vital ichor to flow out from his body and left him inanimate.[6]

Pygmalion was a legendary king and sculptor of Greek mythology, famously represented in Ovid's Metamorphoses. In the 10th book of Ovid's narrative poem, Pygmalion becomes disgusted with women when he witnesses the way in which the Propoetides prostitute themselves.[7] Despite this, he makes offerings at the temple of Venus asking the goddess to bring to him a woman just like a statue he carved.

Medieval legends of artificial beings

Depiction of a homunculus from Goethe's Faust

In Of the Nature of Things, written by the Swiss alchemist, Paracelsus, he describes a procedure that he claims can fabricate an "artificial man". By placing the "sperm of a man" in horse dung, and feeding it the "Arcanum of Mans blood" after 40 days, the concoction will become a living infant.[8]

The earliest written account regarding golem-making is found in the writings of Eleazar ben Judah of Worms in the early 13th century.[9] During the Middle Ages, it was believed that the animation of a Golem could be achieved by insertion of a piece of paper with any of God’s names on it, into the mouth of the clay figure.[10] Unlike legendary automata like Brazen Heads,[11] a Golem was unable to speak.[12]

Takwin, the artificial creation of life, was a frequent topic of Ismaili alchemical manuscripts, especially those attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan. Islamic alchemists attempted to create a broad range of life through their work, ranging from plants to animals.[13]

In Faust: The Second Part of the Tragedy by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, an alchemically fabricated homunculus, destined to live forever in the flask in which he was made, endeavors to be born into a full human body. Upon the initiation of this transformation, however, the flask shatters and the homunculus dies.[14]

Modern fiction

Главни чланак: Artificial intelligence in fiction

By the 19th century, ideas about artificial men and thinking machines were developed in fiction, as in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein or Karel Čapek's R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots),[15] and speculation, such as Samuel Butler's "Darwin among the Machines",[16] and in real-world instances, including Edgar Allan Poe's "Maelzel's Chess Player".[17] AI is a common topic in science fiction through the present.[18]

Automata

Главни чланак: Automaton
Al-Jazari's programmable automata (1206 CE)

Realistic humanoid automata were built by craftsman from every civilization, including Yan Shi,[19] Hero of Alexandria,[20] Al-Jazari,[21] Pierre Jaquet-Droz, and Wolfgang von Kempelen.[22][23]

The oldest known automata were the sacred statues of ancient Egypt and Greece.[24] The faithful believed that craftsman had imbued these figures with very real minds, capable of wisdom and emotion—Hermes Trismegistus wrote that "by discovering the true nature of the gods, man has been able to reproduce it".[25][26] English scholar Alexander Neckham asserted that the Ancient Roman poet Virgil had built a palace with automaton statues.[27]

During the early modern period, these legendary automata were said to possess the magical ability to answer questions put to them. The late medieval alchemist and proto-protestant Roger Bacon was purported to have fabricated a brazen head, having developed a legend of having been a wizard.[28][29] These legends were similar to the Norse myth of the Head of Mímir. According to legend, Mímir was known for his intellect and wisdom, and was beheaded in the Æsir-Vanir War. Odin is said to have "embalmed" the head with herbs and spoke incantations over it such that Mímir’s head remained able to speak wisdom to Odin. Odin then kept the head near him for counsel.[30]

Formal reasoning

Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the process of human thought can be mechanized. The study of mechanical—or "formal"—reasoning has a long history. Chinese, Indian and Greek philosophers all developed structured methods of formal deduction by the first millennium BCE. Their ideas were developed over the centuries by philosophers such as Aristotle (who gave a formal analysis of the syllogism), Euclid (whose Elements was a model of formal reasoning), al-Khwārizmī (who developed algebra and gave his name to "algorithm") and European scholastic philosophers such as William of Ockham and Duns Scotus.[31]

Spanish philosopher Ramon Llull (1232–1315) developed several logical machines devoted to the production of knowledge by logical means;[32] Llull described his machines as mechanical entities that could combine basic and undeniable truths by simple logical operations, produced by the machine by mechanical meanings, in such ways as to produce all the possible knowledge.[33] Llull's work had a great influence on Gottfried Leibniz, who redeveloped his ideas.[34]

Gottfried Leibniz, who speculated that human reason could be reduced to mechanical calculation

In the 17th century, Leibniz, Thomas Hobbes and René Descartes explored the possibility that all rational thought could be made as systematic as algebra or geometry.[35] Hobbes famously wrote in Leviathan: "reason is nothing but reckoning".[36] Leibniz envisioned a universal language of reasoning, the characteristica universalis, which would reduce argumentation to calculation so that "there would be no more need of disputation between two philosophers than between two accountants. For it would suffice to take their pencils in hand, down to their slates, and to say each other (with a friend as witness, if they liked): Let us calculate."[37] These philosophers had begun to articulate the physical symbol system hypothesis that would become the guiding faith of AI research.

In the 20th century, the study of mathematical logic provided the essential breakthrough that made artificial intelligence seem plausible. The foundations had been set by such works as Boole's The Laws of Thought and Frege's Begriffsschrift. Building on Frege's system, Russell and Whitehead presented a formal treatment of the foundations of mathematics in their masterpiece, the Principia Mathematica in 1913. Inspired by Russell's success, David Hilbert challenged mathematicians of the 1920s and 30s to answer this fundamental question: "can all of mathematical reasoning be formalized?"[31] His question was answered by Gödel's incompleteness proof, Turing's machine and Church's Lambda calculus.[31][38]

US Army photo of the ENIAC at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering[39]

Their answer was surprising in two ways. First, they proved that there were, in fact, limits to what mathematical logic could accomplish. But second (and more important for AI) their work suggested that, within these limits, any form of mathematical reasoning could be mechanized. The Church-Turing thesis implied that a mechanical device, shuffling symbols as simple as 0 and 1, could imitate any conceivable process of mathematical deduction. The key insight was the Turing machine—a simple theoretical construct that captured the essence of abstract symbol manipulation.[40] This invention would inspire a handful of scientists to begin discussing the possibility of thinking machines.[31][41]

Computer science

Главни чланци: History of computer hardware и History of computer science

Calculating machines were designed or built in antiquity and throughout history by many people, including Gottfried Leibniz,[42] Joseph Marie Jacquard,[43] Charles Babbage,[44] Percy Ludgate,[45] Leonardo Torres Quevedo,[46] Vannevar Bush,[47] and others. Ada Lovelace speculated that Babbage's machine was "a thinking or ... reasoning machine", but warned "It is desirable to guard against the possibility of exaggerated ideas that arise as to the powers" of the machine.[48][49]

The first modern computers were the massive machines of the Second World War (such as Konrad Zuse's Z3, Alan Turing's Heath Robinson and Colossus, Atanasoff and Berry's and ABC and ENIAC at the University of Pennsylvania).[50] ENIAC was based on the theoretical foundation laid by Alan Turing and developed by John von Neumann,[51] and proved to be the most influential.[50]

Reference

  1. ^ Kaplan, Andreas; Haenlein, Michael (2019). „Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence”. Business Horizons. 62: 15—25. S2CID 158433736. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.004. 
  2. ^ Newquist 1994, стр. 143–156.
  3. ^ Newquist 1994, стр. 144–152.
  4. ^ The Talos episode in Argonautica 4
  5. ^ Bibliotheke 1.9.26
  6. ^ Rhodios, Apollonios (2007). The Argonautika : Expanded Edition (на језику: енглески). University of California Press. стр. 355. ISBN 978-0-520-93439-9. OCLC 811491744. 
  7. ^ Morford, Mark (2007). Classical mythology (на језику: енглески). Oxford: Oxford University Press. стр. 184. ISBN 978-0-19-085164-4. OCLC 1102437035. 
  8. ^ Linden, Stanton J. (2003). The alchemy reader : from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton. New York: Cambridge University Press. стр. Ch. 18. ISBN 0-521-79234-7. OCLC 51210362. 
  9. ^ Kressel, Matthew (1. 10. 2015). „36 Days of Judaic Myth: Day 24, The Golem of Prague”. Matthew Kressel (на језику: енглески). Приступљено 15. 3. 2020. 
  10. ^ „GOLEM”. www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Приступљено 15. 3. 2020. 
  11. ^ Newquist 1994, стр. 38.
  12. ^ „Sanhedrin 65b”. www.sefaria.org. Приступљено 15. 3. 2020. 
  13. ^ O'Connor, Kathleen Malone (1994). „The alchemical creation of life (takwin) and other concepts of Genesis in medieval Islam”. Dissertations Available from ProQuest: 1—435. 
  14. ^ Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1890). Faust; a tragedy. Translated, in the original metres ... by Bayard Taylor. Authorised ed., published by special arrangement with Mrs. Bayard Taylor. With a biographical introd. London Ward, Lock. 
  15. ^ McCorduck 2004, стр. 17–25.
  16. ^ Butler 1863.
  17. ^ Newquist 1994, стр. 65.
  18. ^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019). „Hopes and fears for intelligent machines in fiction and reality”. Nature Machine Intelligence (на језику: енглески). 1 (2): 74—78. ISSN 2522-5839. S2CID 150700981. doi:10.1038/s42256-019-0020-9. 
  19. ^ Needham 1986, стр. 53.
  20. ^ McCorduck 2004, стр. 6.
  21. ^ Nick 2005.
  22. ^ McCorduck 2004, стр. 17.
  23. ^ Levitt 2000.
  24. ^ Newquist 1994, стр. 30.
  25. ^ Quoted in McCorduck 2004, стр. 8. Crevier 1993, стр. 1 and McCorduck 2004, стр. 6–9 discusses sacred statues.
  26. ^ Other important automata were built by Haroun al-Rashid McCorduck 2004, стр. 10, Jacques de Vaucanson Newquist 1994, стр. 40, McCorduck 2004, стр. 16 and Leonardo Torres y Quevedo McCorduck 2004, стр. 59–62
  27. ^ Cave, S.; Dihal, K.; Dillon, S. (2020). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking about Intelligent Machines. Oxford University Press. стр. 56. ISBN 978-0-19-884666-6. Приступљено 2. 5. 2023. 
  28. ^ Butler, E. M. (Eliza Marian) (1948). The myth of the magus. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22564-7. OCLC 5063114. 
  29. ^ Porterfield, A. (2006). The Protestant Experience in America. American religious experience. Greenwood Press. стр. 136. ISBN 978-0-313-32801-5. Приступљено 15. 5. 2023. 
  30. ^ Hollander, Lee M. (1964). Heimskringla; history of the kings of Norway. Austin: Published for the American-Scandinavian Foundation by the University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-73061-6. OCLC 638953. 
  31. ^ а б в г Berlinski 2000.
  32. ^ Cfr. Carreras Artau, Tomás y Joaquín. Historia de la filosofía española. Filosofía cristiana de los siglos XIII al XV. Madrid, 1939, Volume I
  33. ^ Bonner, Anthonny, The Art and Logic of Ramón Llull: A User's Guide, Brill, 2007.
  34. ^ Anthony Bonner (ed.), Doctor Illuminatus. A Ramon Llull Reader (Princeton University 1985). Vid. "Llull's Influence: The History of Lullism" at 57–71
  35. ^ 17th century mechanism and AI:
  36. ^ Hobbes and AI:
  37. ^ Leibniz and AI:
  38. ^ The Lambda calculus was especially important to AI, since it was an inspiration for Lisp (the most important programming language used in AI). Crevier 1993, стр. 190 196, 61
  39. ^ The original photo can be seen in the article: Rose, Allen (април 1946). „Lightning Strikes Mathematics”. Popular Science: 83—86. Приступљено 15. 4. 2012. 
  40. ^ Newquist 1994, стр. 56.
  41. ^ The Turing machine: McCorduck 2004, стр. 63–64, Crevier 1993, стр. 22–24, Russell & Norvig 2003, стр. 8 and see Turing 1936–1937
  42. ^ Couturat 1901.
  43. ^ Russell & Norvig 2021, стр. 15.
  44. ^ Russell & Norvig (2021, стр. 15); Newquist (1994, стр. 67)
  45. ^ Randall (1982, стр. 4–5); Byrne (2012); Mulvihill (2012)
  46. ^ Randall (1982, стр. 6, 11–13); Quevedo (1914); Quevedo (1915)
  47. ^ Randall 1982, стр. 13, 16–17.
  48. ^ Quoted in Russell & Norvig (2021, стр. 15)
  49. ^ Menabrea & Lovelace 1843.
  50. ^ а б Russell & Norvig 2021, стр. 14.
  51. ^ McCorduck 2004, стр. 76–80.

Literatura

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