Лимнологија

Lake Hāwea, New Zealand

Микробиолошка истраживања на језеру Rang-kul

Лимнологија (грчки λίμνη; језеро + -логија), грана хидрологије која се бави истраживањем језера, физичким и хемијским својствима језерске воде и биологијом језера. Франсоа Алфонс Форел (1841—1912) је основао поље лимнологије властитим проучавањем Женевског језера. Лимнологија је традиционално блиско сродна хидробиологији која се бави примјеном принципа и метода физике, хемије, геологије и географије на еколошке проблеме.

Limnology (/lɪmˈnɒlədʒi/ lim-NOL-ə-jee; from Greek λίμνη, limne, "lake" and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. The study of limnology includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristics of fresh and saline, natural and man-made bodies of water. This includes the study of lakes, reservoirs, ponds, rivers, springs, streams, wetlands, and groundwater. Water systems are often categorized as either running (lotic) or standing (lentic).

Limnology includes the study of the drainage basin, movement of water through the basin and biogeochemical changes that occur en route. A more recent sub-discipline of limnology, termed landscape limnology, studies, manages, and seeks to conserve these ecosystems using a landscape perspective, by explicitly examining connections between an aquatic ecosystem and its drainage basin. Recently, the need to understand global inland waters as part of the Earth System created a sub-discipline called global limnology. This approach considers processes in inland waters on a global scale, like the role of inland aquatic ecosystems in global biogeochemical cycles.

Историја

The term limnology was coined by François-Alphonse Forel (1841–1912) who established the field with his studies of Lake Geneva. Interest in the discipline rapidly expanded, and in 1922 August Thienemann (a German zoologist) and Einar Naumann (a Swedish botanist) co-founded the International Society of Limnology (SIL, from Societas Internationalis Limnologiae). Forel's original definition of limnology, "the oceanography of lakes", was expanded to encompass the study of all inland waters, and influenced Benedykt Dybowski's work on Lake Baikal.

Prominent early American limnologists included G. Evelyn Hutchinson and Ed Deevey. At the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Edward A. Birge, Chancey Juday, Charles R. Goldman, and Arthur D. Hasler contributed to the development of the Center for Limnology.

Општа лимнологија

Physical properties

Physical properties of aquatic ecosystems are determined by a combination of heat, currents, waves and other seasonal distributions of environmental conditions. The morphometry of a body of water depends on the type of feature (such as a lake, river, stream, wetland, estuary etc.) and the structure of the earth surrounding the body of water. Lakes, for instance, are classified by their formation, and zones of lakes are defined by water depth. River and stream system morphometry is driven by underlying geology of the area as well as the general velocity of the water. Stream morphometry is also influenced by topography (especially slope) as well as precipitation patterns and other factors such as vegetation and land development. Connectivity between streams and lakes relates to the landscape drainage density, lake surface area and lake shape.

Other types of aquatic systems which fall within the study of limnology are estuaries. Estuaries are bodies of water classified by the interaction of a river and the ocean or sea. Wetlands vary in size, shape, and pattern however the most common types, marshes, bogs and swamps, often fluctuate between containing shallow, freshwater and being dry depending on the time of year.

Light interactions

Light zonation is the concept of how the amount of sunlight penetration into water influences the structure of a body of water. These zones define various levels of productivity within an aquatic ecosystems such as a lake. For instance, the depth of the water column which sunlight is able to penetrate and where most plant life is able to grow is known as the photic or euphotic zone. The rest of the water column which is deeper and does not receive sufficient amounts of sunlight for plant growth is known as the aphotic zone.

Thermal stratification

Similar to light zonation, thermal stratification or thermal zonation is a way of grouping parts of the water body within an aquatic system based on the temperature of different lake layers. The less turbid the water, the more light is able to penetrate, and thus heat is conveyed deeper in the water. Heating declines exponentially with depth in the water column, so the water will be warmest near the surface but progressively cooler as moving downwards. There are three main sections that define thermal stratification in a lake. The epilimnion is closest to the water surface and absorbs long- and shortwave radiation to warm the water surface. During cooler months, wind shear can contribute to cooling of the water surface. The thermocline is an area within the water column where water temperatures rapidly decrease. The bottom layer is the hypolimnion, which tends to have the coldest water because its depth restricts sunlight from reaching it. In temperate lakes, fall-season cooling of surface water results in turnover of the water column, where the thermocline is disrupted, and the lake temperature profile becomes more uniform. In cold climates, when water cools below 4^oC (the temperature of maximum density) many lakes can experience an inverse thermal stratification in winter. These lakes are often dimictic, with a brief spring overturn in addition to longer fall overturn. The relative thermal resistance is the energy needed to mix these strata of different temperatures.

Chemical properties

The chemical composition of water in aquatic ecosystems is influenced by natural characteristics and processes including precipitation, underlying soil and bedrock in the drainage basin, erosion, evaporation, and sedimentation. All bodies of water have a certain composition of both organic and inorganic elements and compounds. Biological reactions also affect the chemical properties of water. In addition to natural processes, human activities strongly influence the chemical composition of aquatic systems and their water quality.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide

Dissolved oxygen and dissolved carbon dioxide are often discussed together due their coupled role in respiration and photosynthesis. Dissolved oxygen concentrations can be altered by physical, chemical, and biological processes and reaction. Physical processes including wind mixing can increase dissolved oxygen concentrations, particularly in surface waters of aquatic ecosystems. Because dissolved oxygen solubility is linked to water temperatures, changes in temperature affect dissolved oxygen concentrations as warmer water has a lower capacity to "hold" oxygen as colder water. Biologically, both photosynthesis and aerobic respiration affect dissolved oxygen concentrations. Photosynthesis by autotrophic organisms, such as phytoplankton and aquatic algae, increases dissolved oxygen concentrations while simultaneously reducing carbon dioxide concentrations, since carbon dioxide is taken up during photosynthesis. All aerobic organisms in the aquatic environment take up dissolved oxygen during aerobic respiration, while carbon dioxide is released as a byproduct of this reaction. Because photosynthesis is light-limited, both photosynthesis and respiration occur during the daylight hours, while only respiration occurs during dark hours or in dark portions of an ecosystem. The balance between dissolved oxygen production and consumption is calculated as the aquatic metabolism rate.

Познати лимнолози

• Синиша Станковић

Организације

• Америчко лимнолошко и океанографско друштво
• Аустралијско друштво за лимнологију
• Европско лимнолошко и океанографско друштво
• Њемачко лимнолошко друштво (www.dgl-ev.de)
• Италијанско удружење за океанологију и лимнологију (AIOL; www.aiol.info - R.Bertoni)
• Јапанско лимнолошко друштво
• Међународно удружење за лимнологију (limnology.org)

Види још

• Ихтиологија

Литература

• Gerald A. Cole, Textbook of Limnology, 4th ed. (Waveland Press, 1994) ISBN 0-88133-800-1
• Stanley Dodson, Introduction to Limnology (2005), ISBN 0-07-287935-1
• A.J.Horne and C.R. Goldman: Limnology (1994), ISBN 0-07-023673-9
• G. E. Hutchinson, A Treatise on Limnology, 3 vols. (1957–1975) - classic but dated
• H.B.N. Hynes, The Ecology of Running Waters (1970)
• Jacob Kalff, Limnology (Prentice Hall, 2001)
• B. Moss, Ecology of Fresh Waters (Blackwell, 1998)
• Robert G. Wetzel and Gene E. Likens, Limnological Analyses, 3rd ed. (Springer-Verlag, 2000)
• Patrick E. O'Sullivan and Colin S. Reynolds The Lakes Handbook: Limnology and limnetic ecology ISBN 0-632-04797-6
• Eslamian, S., 2014, (ed.) Handbook of Engineering Hydrology, Vol. 1: Fundamentals and Applications, Francis and Taylor, CRC Group, 636 Pages, USA.
• Eslamian, S., 2014, (ed.) Handbook of Engineering Hydrology, Vol. 2: Modeling, Climate Change and Variability, Francis and Taylor, CRC Group, 646 Pages, USA.
• Eslamian, S, 2014, (ed.) Handbook of Engineering Hydrology, Vol. 3: Environmental Hydrology and Water Management, Francis and Taylor, CRC Group, 606 Pages, USA.
• Anderson, Malcolm G.; McDonnell, Jeffrey J., ур. (2005). Encyclopedia of hydrological sciences. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-49103-9. 
• Hendriks, Martin R. (2010). Introduction to physical hydrology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929684-2. 
• Hornberger, George M.; Wiberg, Patricia L.; Raffensperger, Jeffrey P.; D'Odorico, Paolo P. (2014). Elements of physical hydrology (2nd изд.). Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421413730. 
• Maidment, David R., ур. (1993). Handbook of hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-039732-5. 
• McCuen, Richard H. (2005). Hydrologic analysis and design (3rd изд.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson-Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-142424-6. 
• Viessman, Jr., Warren; Gary L. Lewis (2003). Introduction to hydrology (5th изд.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-673-99337-X. 

Спољашње везе

• SIL official web site