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'''Театар апсурда''' ({{јез-фр|Théâtre de l'Absurde}}) је термин који се користи за [[Позоришна представа|представе]] фикције апсурда, а којим се означавају остварења неколицине драмских писаца из касних [[1940е|1940-их]] (до касних [[1960е|1960-их]]), а такође и за театар који развио полазећи од ових дела. Он је изразио уверење да у [[Атеизам|безбожном универзуму]] људско постојање нема [[Смисао|смисла]] или сврхе, па стога ни комуникација нема никаквог смисла. [[Логика|Логичке конструкције]] и [[Аргумент (филозофија)|аргумент]]и дају право да се говори о [[Ирационално|ирационалном]] и нелогичном што доводи до крајњег закључка позоришта, тишине.
'''Театар апсурда''' ({{јез-фр|Théâtre de l'Absurde}}) је термин који се користи за [[Позоришна представа|представе]] фикције апсурда, а којим се означавају остварења неколицине драмских писаца из касних [[1940е|1940-их]] (до касних [[1960е|1960-их]]), а такође и за театар који развио полазећи од ових дела. Он је изразио уверење да у [[Атеизам|безбожном универзуму]] људско постојање нема [[Смисао|смисла]] или сврхе, па стога ни комуникација нема никаквог смисла. [[Логика|Логичке конструкције]] и [[Аргумент (филозофија)|аргумент]]и дају право да се говори о [[Ирационално|ирационалном]] и нелогичном што доводи до крајњег закључка позоришта, тишине.<ref>''The Hutchinson Encyclopedia'', Millennium Edition, Helicon 1999.</ref>


== Етимологија ==
Критичар [[Мартин Еслин]] је сковао термин [[театар апсурда]], у свом есеју из [[1960|1960.]] године, а касније је издао књигу под истим именом. Објавио је представе које су базиране на теми апсурда, слично као [[Албер Ками]], који овај израз употребљава у есеју [[Мит о сизифу (есеј Албера Камија)|„Мит о Сизифу“]] из [[1942]]. Апсурд је у овим комадима представљен у облику човекове реакције на свет без смисла или као човек којим се управља као марионетом од стране невидљивих спољашњих сила. Иако се израз примењује на широк спектар представа, постоје неке опште карактеристике које су заједничке за већину комада: комедија која се меша са трагичним и стравичним сликама, ликови коју су ухваћени у безнадежним ситуацијама, приморани да понављају бесмислене радње; дијалог пун клишеа, игра речи и глупости; завере које се циклично или апсурдно понављају; пародија или бежање од реализма и концепта „добро направљена игра“.
Критичар [[Мартин Еслин]] је сковао термин [[театар апсурда]], у свом есеју из [[1960|1960.]] године,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Theatre of the Absurd |first=Martin |last=Esslin |year=1961 |oclc=329986 }}</ref> а касније је издао књигу под истим именом. Објавио је представе које су базиране на теми апсурда, слично као [[Албер Ками]], који овај израз употребљава у есеју [[Мит о сизифу (есеј Албера Камија)|„Мит о Сизифу“]] из [[1942]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/Absurd.htm |title=THE THEATRE OF THE ABSURD: THE WEST AND THE EAST |first=Jan |last=Culík |date=2000 |publisher=University of Glasgow |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823075755/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/Absurd.htm |archivedate=2009-08-23 }}</ref> Апсурд је у овим комадима представљен у облику човекове реакције на свет без смисла или као човек којим се управља као марионетом од стране невидљивих спољашњих сила. Иако се израз примењује на широк спектар представа, постоје неке опште карактеристике које су заједничке за већину комада: комедија која се меша са трагичним и стравичним сликама, ликови коју су ухваћени у безнадежним ситуацијама, приморани да понављају бесмислене радње; дијалог пун клишеа, игра речи и глупости; завере које се циклично или апсурдно понављају; пародија или бежање од реализма и концепта „добро направљена игра“.


Драмски писци чија се дела углавном означавају као театар апсурда су: [[Семјуел Бекет]], [[Ежен Јонеско]], [[Артур Адамов]], [[Жан Жене]], [[Харолд Пинтер]],<ref name="Inc1995">{{cite book|last1=E. Garreau|first1=Joseph |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eKNK1YwHcQ4C&pg=PA1104|date = 1. 01. 1995|publisher=Merriam-Webster|isbn=978-0-87779-042-6|pages=1104–}}</ref> [[Том Стопард]], [[Фридрих Диренмат]], [[Фернандо Арабал]] и [[Едвард Олби]].
Драмски писци чија се дела углавном означавају као театар апсурда су: [[Семјуел Бекет]], [[Ежен Јонеско]], [[Артур Адамов]], [[Жан Жене]], [[Харолд Пинтер]],<ref name="Inc1995">{{cite book|last1=E. Garreau|first1=Joseph |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eKNK1YwHcQ4C&pg=PA1104|date = 1. 01. 1995|publisher=Merriam-Webster|isbn=978-0-87779-042-6|pages=1104–}}</ref> [[Луиђи Пирандело]],[[Том Стопард]], [[Фридрих Диренмат]], [[Алехандро Ходоровски]], [[Фернандо Арабал]], [[Вацлав Хавел]] и [[Едвард Олби]].<ref>Tanuja Mathur, 'Visualizing Dramatic Texts: Eugene Ionesco's ''The Chairs'' and Badal Sircar's ''Evam Inrad'' '. [http://www.universitypublications.net/ijas/0903/pdf/V6Z282.pdf ''International Journal of Arts & Sciences'' 9(3) (2016), pp. 509–512].</ref>

== Порекло ==
У првом издању ''Театара апсурда'' Еслин је приметио да рад ових драматурга даје уметнички смисао филозофији [[Албер Ками|Албера Камија]] да је живот сам по себи без смисла, као што је илустровано у свом делу ''Мит о Сизифу.'' У првом издању Еслин је представио четири дефинишућа драматурга покрета [[Семјуел Бекет|Семјуела Бекета]], [[Артур Адамов|Артура Адамов]]<nowiki/>а, [[Ежен Јонеско|Ежена Јонеска]] и Жана Женеа, а у каснијим издањима додао је и петог драмског писца, [[Харолд Пинтер|Харолда Пинтер]], иако сваки од ових писаца има јединствене преокупације и карактеристике које надилазе термин "апсурд."<ref name=Esslin1961ed>Martin Esslin, ''The Theatre of the Absurd'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1961). (Subsequent references to this ed. appear within parentheses in the text.)</ref><ref name=Esslin2004ed>Martin Esslin, ''The Theatre of the Absurd'', 3rd ed. (New York: Vintage [Knopf], 2004). (Subsequent references to this ed. appear within parentheses in the text.)</ref> Остали писци које су Еслин и други критичари повезали са овом групом су Том Стопард,<ref>Terry Hodgson. ''The plays of Tom Stoppard: for stage, radio, TV and film''.Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. {{ISBN|1-84046-241-8}}, {{ISBN|978-1-84046-241-8}}. p.181.</ref> Фридрих Диренмат,<ref>Joel Agee. ''Dürrenmatt, Friedrich: Friedrich Dürrenmatt''.University of Chicago Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0-226-17426-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-226-17426-6}}. p. xi</ref> Ферандо Арабал,<ref name="Londre438">[[Felicia Hardison Londré]], Margot Berthold. ''The history of world theater: from the English restoration to the present''. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999. {{ISBN|0-8264-1167-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8264-1167-9}}. p. 438</ref> [[Едвард Олби]],<ref>Barbara Lee Horn. ''Edward Albee: a research and production sourcebook''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003. {{ISBN|0-313-31141-2}}, {{ISBN|978-0-313-31141-3}}. pp. 13, 17 29, 40, 55, 232.</ref> [[Борис Вијан]],<ref>Neil Cornwell. ''The Absurd in Literature''. Manchester University Press ND, 2006. {{ISBN|0-7190-7410-X}}. p. 280.</ref> [[Жан Тардије]].<ref name=Esslin1961ed /><ref name=Esslin2004ed /><ref name = Londre438 />

== Значајни претходници ==
Иако етикета "Театар апсурда" обухвата велики број драмских текстова различитих стилова, они имају неке уобичајене стилске претходнике (Еслин ,1961). Ови претходници укључују елизабетанску трагикомедију, формално експериментирање, патафизику, надреализам, дадаизам и, што је најважније, егзистенцијализам.

=== Елизабетанска –трагикомедија ===
Већина "апсурдистичких" представа је трагикомедија.<ref name="Esslin, pp. 323-324">Esslin, pp. 323–324</ref><ref>J. L. Styan. ''Modern Drama in Theory and Practice''. Cambridge University Press, 1983 {{ISBN|0-521-29629-3}}, p. 125</ref> Како Нел каже у Бекетовом ''Крају игре'', „Ништа није смешније од несреће ... то је најкомичнија ствар на свету“ <ref>Samuel Beckett. ''Endgame: a play in one act, followed by Act without words, a mime for one player''. Grove Press, 1958. {{ISBN|0-8021-5024-1}}. pp. 18–19.</ref> Еслин наводи [[Вилијам Шекспир|Вилијама Шекспира]] као утицај на овај аспект "драме апсурда".<ref>Esslin, pp. 321–323</ref>Шекспиров утицај признат је директно у насловима Јонесковог ''Магбета'' и Стопардовог ''Розенкранц и Гилденстерн су мртви''. Фриедрих Диренмат у свом есеју "''Проблеми театра''" каже: "Комедија је за нас погодна ... Али, трагика је и даље могућа чак и ако чиста трагедија не постоји. Трагику можемо постићи из комедије. То можемо извести као застрашујући тренутак, као понор који се нагло отвара; заиста су многе Шекспирове трагедије заправо комедије из којих произилази трагично."<ref>Friedrich Dürrenmatt. "Problems of the Theatre". ''The Marriage of Mr. Mississippi''. Grove Press, 1964. {{ISBN|978-0-394-17198-2}}. pp. 30–31.</ref>

Иако је прожет са значајном количином трагедије, театар апсурда одјекује кроз друге сјајне форме комичне представе, тврди Еслин, од [[Комедија дел арте|комедије дел арте]] до [[Водвиљ|водвиља]].<ref name="Esslin, pp. 323-324" /><ref>Styan, p. 126</ref> Такође, Еслин наводи комичаре раног филма и уметнике [[Мјузикхол|мјузикхола]] као што су [[Чарли Чаплин|Чарли Чаплин,]] ''Кејстон полицајци'' и [[Бастер Китон]] као директни утицаји. (Китон је чак глумио у Бекетовом филму 1965 .године.)<ref>Esslin, p. 325</ref>

=== Формално експериментирање ===
Као експериментални облик позоришта, многи драматурзи Театра апсурда користе технике које су позајмили од ранијих иноватора. Писци и технике које се често спомињу у вези са Театром апсурда укључују песнике глупости из 19. века, попут [[Луис Керол|Луиса Керола]] или Едварда Лира;<ref>Esslin, pp. 330–331</ref> пољског драматурга [[Станислав Игнаци Виткјевич|Станислава Игнаци Виткјевича]];<ref>Esslin, pp. 382–385</ref> руског [[Данил Хармс|Данила Хармса]] <ref>Neil Cornwell. ''The absurd in literature.'' Manchester University Press ND, 2006. {{ISBN|0-7190-7410-X}}. p. 143.</ref> Николај Ердман<ref>John Freedman. ''The major plays of Nikolai Erdman: The warrant and The suicide''. Routledge, 1995.{{ISBN|3718655837}}. xvii.</ref> и други; технике дистанцирања [[Бертолт Брехт|Бертолта Брехта]] у његовом "Епском театру" ;<ref>Esslin, pp. 365–368</ref> и "представе из снова" [[August Strindberg|Аугуста Стриндберга]].<ref name="Esslin1961ed" /><ref name = StyanDark>J. L. Styan. ''The dark comedy: the development of modern comic tragedy.'' Cambridge University Press, 1968. {{ISBN|0-521-09529-8}}. p. 217.</ref><!--needs page numbers in citations throughout-->

One commonly cited precursor is [[Luigi Pirandello]], especially ''[[Six Characters in Search of an Author]]''.<ref name = StyanDark /><ref>Annette J. Saddik. Ed. "Experimental Innovations After the Second World War". ''Contemporary American Drama''.Edinburgh University Press, 2007. {{ISBN|0-7486-2494-5}}. p. 28</ref> Pirandello was a highly regarded theatrical experimentalist who wanted to bring down the [[fourth wall]] presupposed by the [[Realism (theatre)|realism]] of playwrights such as [[Henrik Ibsen]].<!--Page number references to citations needed throughout.--> According to [[W. B. Worthen]], ''Six Characters'' and other Pirandello plays use "[[Metatheatre]]—[[roleplaying]], [[Play within a play|plays-within-plays]], and a flexible sense of the limits of stage and illusion—to examine a highly-theatricalized vision of [[Personal identity|identity]]".<ref>Worthen, p. 702</ref>

Another influential playwright was [[Guillaume Apollinaire]] whose ''[[The Breasts of Tiresias]]'' was the first work to be called "[[Surrealism|surreal]]".<ref name = Lewis260>Allan Lewis. "The Theatre of the 'Absurd' – Beckett, Ionesco, Genet". ''The Contemporary Theatre: The Significant Playwrights of Our Time''. Crown Publishers, 1966. p. 260</ref><ref name = Glasgow>Rupert D. V. Glasgow. ''Madness, Masks, and Laughter: An Essay on Comedy''. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-8386-3559-8}}. p. 332.</ref><ref>Deborah B. Gaensbauer. ''The French theater of the absurd''. Twayne Publishers, 1991. {{ISBN|0-8057-8270-2}}. p. 17</ref>

=== Патафизика, надреализам и дадаизам ===
One of the most significant common precursors is [[Alfred Jarry]] whose wild, irreverent, and lascivious ''Ubu'' plays scandalized Paris in the 1890s. Likewise, the concept of [['pataphysics]]—"the science of imaginary solutions"—first presented in Jarry's ''Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien'' (''[[Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, pataphysician]]'')<ref>Jill Fell. ''Alfred Jarry, an imagination in revolt''. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 2005. {{ISBN|0-8386-4007-9}}. p. 53</ref> was inspirational to many later Absurdists,<ref name="Glasgow" /> some of whom joined the Collège de 'pataphysique, founded in honor of Jarry in 1948<ref name="Lewis260" /><ref>Esslin, pp. 346–348</ref> (Ionesco,<ref name = Queneau>Raymond Queneau, Marc Lowenthal. ''Stories & remarks''.U of Nebraska Press, 2000
{{ISBN|0-8032-8852-2}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8032-8852-2}}. pp. ix–x</ref> Arrabal, and Vian<ref name="Queneau" /><ref>David Bellos. ''Georges Perec: a life in words : a biography''. David R. Godine Publisher, 1993. {{ISBN|0-87923-980-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-87923-980-0}}. p. 596</ref> were given the title Transcendent Satrape of the Collège de 'pataphysique). The [[Theatre Alfred Jarry]], founded by [[Antonin Artaud]] and [[Roger Vitrac]], housed several Absurdist plays, including ones by Ionesco and Adamov.<ref>Esslin, p. 373.</ref><ref>Cornwell, p.170</ref>

Artaud's "[[Theatre of Cruelty|The Theatre of Cruelty]]" (presented in ''[[Theatre and its Double|The Theatre and Its Double]]'') was a particularly important philosophical treatise. Artaud claimed theatre's reliance on literature was inadequate and that the true power of theatre was in its visceral impact.<ref>Antonin Artaud ''The Theatre and Its Double''. Tr. Mary Caroline Richards. New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1958., pp. 15–133.</ref><ref>Styan, ''Modern'' p. 128</ref><ref>Saddik, pp. 24–27.</ref> Artaud was a [[Surrealism|Surrealist]], and many other members of the Surrealist group were significant influences on the Absurdists.<ref>Esslin, pp. 372–375.</ref><ref>Mel Gussow. ''Theatre on the edge: new visions, new voices''. Hal Leonard Corporation, 1998. {{ISBN|1-55783-311-7}}. p. 303.</ref><ref>Eli Rozik. ''The roots of theatre: rethinking ritual and other theories of origin''. University of Iowa Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-87745-817-0}}. p. 264.</ref>

[[Absurdist fiction|Absurdism]] is also frequently compared to Surrealism's predecessor, [[Dadaism]] (for example, the Dadaist plays by [[Tristan Tzara]] performed at the [[Cabaret Voltaire (Zürich)|Cabaret Voltaire]] in Zürich).<ref>Richard Drain. ''Twentieth-century theatre: a sourcebook''. Routledge, 1995. {{ISBN|0-415-09619-7}}. pp. 5–7, 26.</ref> Many of the Absurdists had direct connections with the Dadaists and Surrealists. Ionesco,<ref>Eugène Ionesco. ''Present past, past present: a personal memoir''. Da Capo Press, 1998. {{ISBN|0-306-80835-8}}. p. 148.</ref><ref>Lamont, pp. 41–42</ref> Adamov,<ref>Esslin, p. 89</ref><ref>Justin Wintle. ''Makers of modern culture''. Routledge, 2002. {{ISBN|0-415-26583-5}}. p. 3</ref> and Arrabal<ref>C. D. Innes. ''Avant garde theatre, 1892–1992''.Routledge, 1993. {{ISBN|0-415-06518-6}}. p. 118.</ref> for example, were friends with Surrealists still living in Paris at the time including [[Paul Eluard]] and [[André Breton]], the founder of Surrealism, and Beckett translated many Surrealist poems by Breton and others from French into English.<ref>James Knowlson. ''Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett''. London. Bloomsbury Publishing, 1997. {{ISBN|0-7475-3169-2}}., p. 65</ref><ref>Daniel Albright. ''Beckett and aesthetics''.Cambridge University Press, 2003. {{ISBN|0-521-82908-9}}. p. 10</ref>

=== Веза са егзистенцијализмом ===

Many of the Absurdists were contemporaries with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], the philosophical spokesman for existentialism in Paris, but few Absurdists actually committed to Sartre's own existentialist philosophy, as expressed in ''[[Being and Nothingness]]'', and many of the Absurdists had a complicated relationship with him. Sartre praised Genet's plays, stating that for Genet, "Good is only an illusion. Evil is a Nothingness which arises upon the ruins of Good".<ref>Jean-Paul Sartre. "Introduction to ''The Maids; and Deathwatch''" ''The Maids; and Deathwatch''. Grove Press, 1962. {{ISBN|0-8021-5056-X}}. p. 11.</ref>

Ionesco, however, hated Sartre bitterly.<ref>Eugène Ionesco. ''Present Past, Past Present''. Da Capo Press, 1998. {{ISBN|0-306-80835-8}}. p. 63.</ref> Ionesco accused Sartre of supporting Communism but ignoring the atrocities committed by Communists; he wrote ''[[Rhinoceros (play)|Rhinoceros]]'' as a criticism of blind conformity, whether it be to Nazism or Communism; at the end of the play, one man remains on Earth resisting transformation into a rhinoceros<ref>Eugène Ionesco. ''Fragments of a Journal''. Tr. Jean Stewart. London: Faber and Faber, 1968. p. 78.</ref><ref>Rosette C. Lamont. ''Ionesco's imperatives: the politics of culture''. University of Michigan Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0-472-10310-5}}. p. 145.</ref> Sartre criticized ''Rhinoceros'' by questioning: "Why is there one man who resists? At least we could learn why, but no, we learn not even that. He resists because he is there".<ref>"Beyond Bourgeois Theatre" 6</ref><ref>Lewis, p. 275.</ref> Sartre's criticism highlights a primary difference between the Theatre of the Absurd and existentialism: the Theatre of the Absurd shows the failure of man without recommending a solution.<ref>Lamont, p. 67.</ref> In a 1966 interview, [[Claude Bonnefoy]], comparing the Absurdists to Sartre and Camus, said to Ionesco, "It seems to me that Beckett, Adamov and yourself started out less from philosophical reflections or a return to classical sources, than from first-hand experience and a desire to find a new theatrical expression that would enable you to render this experience in all its acuteness and also its immediacy. If Sartre and Camus thought out these themes, you expressed them in a far more vital contemporary fashion". Ionesco replied, "I have the feeling that these writers – who are serious and important – were talking about absurdity and death, but that they never really lived these themes, that they did not feel them within themselves in an almost irrational, visceral way, that all this was not deeply inscribed in their language. With them it was still rhetoric, eloquence. With Adamov and Beckett it really is a very naked reality that is conveyed through the apparent dislocation of language".<ref>Claude Bonnefoy. ''Conversations with Eugène Ionesco''. Trans. Jan Dawson. Holt, Rinehard and Winston, 1971. pp. 122–123.</ref>

In comparison to Sartre's concepts of the function of literature, [[Samuel Beckett]]'s primary focus was on the ''failure'' of man to overcome "absurdity" - or the repetition of life even though the end result will be the same no matter what and everything is essentially pointless - as James Knowlson says in ''Damned to Fame'', Beckett's work focuses, "on poverty, failure, exile and loss — as he put it, on man as a 'non-knower' and as a 'non-can-er'&nbsp;."<ref>Knowlson, p. 319</ref> Beckett's own relationship with Sartre was complicated by a mistake made in the publication of one of his stories in Sartre's journal ''[[Les Temps Modernes]]''.<ref>Knowlson, p. 325.</ref> Beckett said, though he liked ''[[Nausea (novel)|Nausea]]'', he generally found the writing style of Sartre and [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]] to be "too philosophical" and he considered himself "not a philosopher".<ref>Anthony Cronin, Isaac Cronin. ''Samuel Beckett: the last modernist''. Da Capo Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-306-80898-6}}. p. 231.</ref>

== Историја ==
The "Absurd" or "New Theater" movement was originally a Paris-based (and a [[Rive Gauche]]) avant-garde phenomenon tied to extremely small theaters in the [[Quartier Latin]]. Some of the Absurdists, such as [[Jean Genet]],<ref>Peter Norrish. ''New tragedy and comedy in France, 1945–1970''.Rowman & Littlefield, 1988. {{ISBN|0-389-20746-2}}. p. 107</ref> [[Jean Tardieu]],<ref name = Hardison438>Felicia Hardison Londré, Margot Berthold. ''The history of world theater: from the English restoration to the present''. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999. {{ISBN|0-8264-1167-3}}. p. 428.</ref> and [[Boris Vian]].,<ref>Bill Marshall, Cristina Johnston. ''France and the Americas: culture, politics, and history : a multidisciplinary encycopledia''. ABC-CLIO, 2005. {{ISBN|1-85109-411-3}}. p. 1187.</ref> were born in France. Many other Absurdists were born elsewhere but lived in France, writing often in French: [[Samuel Beckett]] from Ireland;<ref name="Hardison438" /> [[Eugène Ionesco]] from [[Romania]];<ref name="Hardison438" /> [[Arthur Adamov]] from Russia;<ref name="Hardison438" /> [[Alejandro Jodorowsky]] from Chile and [[Fernando Arrabal]] from Spain.<ref>David Thatcher Gies. ''The Cambridge companion to modern Spanish culture''. Cambridge University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-521-57429-3}}. p. 229</ref> As the influence of the Absurdists grew, the style spread to other countries—with playwrights either directly influenced by Absurdists in Paris or playwrights labelled Absurdist by critics. In England some of those whom Esslin considered practitioners of the Theatre of the Absurd include [[Harold Pinter]],<ref name="Hardison438" /> [[Tom Stoppard]],<ref>Gabrielle H. Cody, Evert Sprinchorn. ''The Columbia encyclopedia of modern drama''. Columbia University Press, 2007. {{ISBN|0-231-14424-5}}. p. 1285.</ref> [[N. F. Simpson]],<ref name="Hardison438" /> [[James Saunders (playwright)|James Saunders]],<ref>Randall Stevenson, Jonathan Bate. ''The Oxford English Literary History: 1960–2000: The Last of England?''. Oxford University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-19-818423-9}}. p. 356.</ref> and [[David Campton]];<ref>Stevenson, p. 358.</ref> in the United States, [[Edward Albee]],<ref name="Hardison438" /> [[Sam Shepard]],<ref>Don Shewey. ''Sam Shepard''. Da Capo Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-306-80770-X}}. pp. 123, 132.</ref> [[Jack Gelber]],<ref>C. W. E. Bigsby. ''Modern American drama, 1945–2000''. Cambridge University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-521-79410-2}}. p. 124</ref> and [[John Guare]];<ref>Bigsby, p. 385.</ref> in [[Poland]], [[Tadeusz Różewicz]],<ref name="Hardison438" /> [[Sławomir Mrożek]],<ref name="Hardison438" /> and [[Tadeusz Kantor]];<ref>Cody, p. 1343</ref> in Italy, [[Dino Buzzati]];<ref>Gaetana Marrone, Paolo Puppa, Luca Somigli. ''Encyclopedia of Italian literary studies''. CRC Press, 2006. {{ISBN|1-57958-390-3}}. p. 335</ref> and in Germany, [[Peter Weiss]],<ref>Robert Cohen. ''Understanding Peter Weiss''. Univ of South Carolina Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0-87249-898-0}}. pp. 35–36.</ref> [[Wolfgang Hildesheimer]],<ref name="Hardison438" /> and [[Günter Grass]].<ref name="Hardison438" /> In India, both [[Mohit Chattopadhyay]]<ref name=Cavendish>Marshall Cavendish. ''World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia''. Marshall Cavendish, 2007. {{ISBN|0-7614-7631-8}}. p. 408.</ref> and [[Mahesh Elkunchwar]]<ref name="Cavendish" /> have also been labeled Absurdists. Other international Absurdist playwrights include [[Tawfiq el-Hakim]] from [[Egypt]];<ref>William M. Hutchins. ''Tawfiq al-Hakim: a reader's guide''. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2003. {{ISBN|0-89410-885-9}}. p. 1, 27.</ref> [[Hanoch Levin]] from Israel;<ref>Linda Ben-Zvi. ''Theater in Israel''. University of Michigan Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-472-10607-4}}. p. 151.</ref> [[Miguel Mihura]] from Spain;<ref>Gies, p. 258</ref> [[José de Almada Negreiros]] from Portugal;<ref>Anna Klobucka. ''The Portuguese nun: formation of a national myth''. Bucknell University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-8387-5465-1}}. p. 88.</ref> Mikhail Volokhov<ref>[http://volokhov.ru/site/ Mikhail Volokhov]</ref> from Russia; [[Yordan Radichkov]] from [[Bulgaria]];<ref>Kalina Stefanova, Ann Waugh. ''Eastern European Theater After the Iron Curtain''.Routledge, 2000. {{ISBN|90-5755-054-7}}. p. 34</ref> and playwright and former Czech President [[Václav Havel]].<ref name="Hardison438" />

=== Важне представе ===
*''Служавке'' Жана Женеа (''Les Bonnes'') премијерно приказана 1947. године.<ref>Gene A. Plunka. ''The Rites of Passage of Jean Genet: The Art and Aesthetics of Risk Taking''. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-8386-3461-3}}. pp. 29, 304.</ref>
*''Ћелава певачица'' Еженаа Јонеска (''La Cantatrice Chauve'') премијерно приказана 11. маја 1950. at the [[Théâtre des Noctambules]]. Ionesco followed this with ''The Lesson'' (''La Leçon'') in 1951 and ''The Chairs'' (''Les Chaises'') in 1952.<ref>Allan Lewis. ''Ionesco''. Twayne Publishers, 1972. p. 33</ref><ref>Lamont, p. 3</ref>
* [[Samuel Beckett]]'s ''[[Waiting for Godot]]'' was first performed on 5 January 1953 at the Théâtre de Babylone in Paris.<ref>Lawrence Graver, Raymond Federman. ''Samuel Beckett: The Critical Heritage''. Routledge, 1997. {{ISBN|0-415-15954-7}}. p. 88</ref>
* In 1957, Genet's ''[[The Balcony]]'' (''Le Balcon'') was produced in London at the Arts Theatre.<ref>Plunka, pp. 29, 309</ref>
* That May, Harold Pinter's ''[[The Room (play)|The Room]]'' was presented at The Drama Studio at the University of Bristol.<ref>Ian Smith, Harold Pinter. ''Pinter in the theatre''. Nick Hern Books, 2005. {{ISBN|1-85459-864-3}}. p. 169.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.haroldpinter.org/plays/plays_room.shtml|title=www.haroldpinter.org - Plays|last=raysdesigns2000@hotmail.com|publisher=}}</ref> Pinter's ''[[The Birthday Party (play)|The Birthday Party]]'' premiered in the West End in 1958.<ref>Smith, pp. 28–29</ref>
* [[Edward Albee]]'s ''[[The Zoo Story]]'' premiered in West Berlin at the Schiller Theater Werkstatt in 1959.<ref name= Horn>Barbara Lee Horn. ''Edward Albee: a research and production sourcebook''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003. {{ISBN|0-313-31141-2}}. p. 2</ref>
* On October 28, 1959, ''[[Krapp's Last Tape]]'' by Beckett was first performed at the Royal Court Theatre in London.<ref>Graver, xvii</ref>
* [[Fernando Arrabal]]'s ''[[Picnic on the Battlefield]]'' (''Pique-nique en campagne'') came out in 1958.<ref name = Bradby>David Bradby, Maria M. Delgado. ''The Paris jigsaw: internationalism and the city's stages''. Manchester University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-7190-6184-9}}. p. 204</ref><ref>Styan, ''Modern'' p. 144</ref>
* Genet's ''[[The Blacks (play)|The Blacks]]'' (''Les Nègres'') was published that year but was first performed at the Théatre de Lutèce in Paris on 28 October 1959.<ref>Plunka, pp. 29, 30, 309</ref>
* 1959 also saw the completion of Ionesco's ''[[Rhinoceros (play)|Rhinoceros]]'' which premiered in Paris in January 1960 at the Odeon.<ref>Lamont, p. 275</ref>
* Beckett's ''[[Happy Days (play)|Happy Days]]'' was first performed at the Cherry Lane Theatre in New York on 17 September 1961.<ref>Graver, p. xviii</ref>
* Albee's ''[[Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]'' also premiered in New York the following year, on October 13.<ref name="Horn" />
* Pinter's ''[[The Homecoming]]'' premiered in London in June 1965 at the Aldwych Theatre.<ref>Peter Raby. ''The Cambridge companion to Harold Pinter''. Cambridge University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0-521-65842-X}}. p. xv.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.haroldpinter.org/plays/title_homecoming.shtml|title=www.haroldpinter.org - The Homecoming|last=raysdesigns2000@hotmail.com|publisher=}}</ref>
* Peter Weiss's ''[[Marat/Sade]]'' (''The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade'') was first performed in West Berlin in 1964 and in New York City a year later.<ref>Peter Weiss, Robert Cohen. ''Marat/Sade; The investigation; and The shadow of the coachman's body''. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1998. {{ISBN|0-8264-0963-6}}. p. xxvi.</ref>
* [[Tom Stoppard]]'s ''[[Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead]]'' premiered at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1966.<ref>Anthony Jenkins. ''The theatre of Tom Stoppard''. Cambridge University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|0-521-37974-1}}. p. 37.</ref>
* Arrabal's ''[[Automobile Graveyard]]'' (''Le Cimetière des voitures'') was also first performed in 1966.<ref name="Bradby" />
* Lebanese author [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/564284 Issam Mahfouz's play ''The Dictator''] premiered in Beirut in 1969.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Myers|first=Robert|last2=Saab|first2=Nada|date=2014-12-16|title=Revolutionary Theatre of the Absurd from the Arab World|journal=PAJ: A Journal of Performance and Art|volume=37|issue=1|pages=94–96|doi=10.1162/PAJJ_a_00249|issn=1520-281X}}</ref>
* Beckett's ''[[Catastrophe (play)|Catastrophe]]''—dedicated to then-imprisoned Czech dissident playwright [[Václav Havel]], who became president of [[Czechoslovakia]] after the 1989 [[Velvet Revolution]]—was first performed at the Avignon Festival on July 21, 1982.<ref>Knowlson, p. 741.</ref><ref>Enoch Brater. ''Beyond Minimalism: Beckett's Late Style in the Theater''. Oxford University Press US, 1990. {{ISBN|0-19-506655-3}}. p. 139.</ref> The film version (''[[Beckett on Film#Catastrophe|Beckett on Film]]'', 2001) was directed by [[David Mamet]] and performed by [[Harold Pinter]], [[John Gielgud|Sir John Gielgud]], and [[Rebecca Pidgeon]].<ref>Chris Ackerley, S. E. Gontarski. ''The Grove companion to Samuel Beckett: a reader's guide to his works, life, and thought''. Grove Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-8021-4049-1}}. p. 44</ref>

=== Legacy ===
Echoes of elements of "The Theatre of the Absurd" can be seen in the work of many later playwrights, from more [[avant-garde]] or experimental playwrights like [[Suzan-Lori Parks]]—in ''[[The Death of the Last Black Man in the Whole Entire World]]'' and ''[[The America Play]]'',<ref>Enoch Brater. "After the Absurd". ''Around the Absurd: Essays on Modern and Postmodern Drama''. Ed. Enoch Brater and Ruby Cohn. University of Michigan Press, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-472-10205-1}}. pp. 293–301.</ref> for example—to relatively realistic playwrights like [[David Mamet]]—in ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross]]'', which Mamet dedicated to [[Harold Pinter]].<ref>David Mamet. ''Glengarry Glen Ross''. Grove Press, 1984. {{ISBN|0-394-53857-9}}. p. 2</ref><ref>Michael Hinden. "After Beckett: The Plays of Pinter, Stoppard, and Shepard". ''Contemporary Literature''. Fall 1986, Vol. 27, Issue 3. p. 408.</ref> Irish playwright [[Martin McDonagh]] in plays such as ''[[Pillowman]]''<ref>Neil Cornwell. ''The absurd in literature''. Manchester University Press ND, 2006. {{ISBN|0-7190-7410-X}}, 9780719074103. p. 296.</ref> addresses some of the themes and uses some of the techniques of Absurdism, especially reminiscent of Beckett<ref>Klaus Stierstorfer. ''Beyond postmodernism: reassessments in literature, theory, and culture''. Walter de Gruyter, 2003 {{ISBN|3-11-017722-6}}, {{ISBN|978-3-11-017722-0}}. p. 294.</ref> and Pinter.<ref>Richard Rankin Russell. ''Martin McDonagh: a casebook''. Routledge, 2007. {{ISBN|0-415-97765-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-97765-4}}. p. 3.</ref><ref>Lisa Fitzpatrick. "Language Games: ''The Pillowman'', ''A Skull in Connemara'', and Martin McDonagh's Hiberno-English". ''The Theatre of Martin McDonagh: A World of Savage Stories''. ed. Lilian Chambers and Eamonn Jordan. Dublin: Craysfort Press, 2006. {{ISBN|1-904505-19-8}}. pp. 141, 150–151</ref>

== Theatrical features ==
Plays within this group are absurd in that they focus not on logical acts, realistic occurrences, or traditional character development; they, instead, focus on human beings trapped in an incomprehensible world subject to any occurrence, no matter how illogical.<ref>Styan, ''Dark'' 218</ref><ref>Saddik, p. 29</ref><ref>Norrish, pp. 2–8.</ref> The theme of incomprehensibility is coupled with the inadequacy of language to form meaningful human connections.<ref name="Lewis260" /> According to Martin Esslin, Absurdism is "the inevitable devaluation of ideals, purity, and purpose"<ref>Esslin, p. 24</ref> Absurdist drama asks its viewer to "draw his own conclusions, make his own errors".<ref>Esslin, p. 20</ref> Though Theatre of the Absurd may be seen as nonsense, they have something to say and can be understood".<ref>Esslin, p. 21</ref> Esslin makes a distinction between the dictionary definition of absurd ("out of harmony" in the musical sense) and drama's understanding of the Absurd: "Absurd is that which is devoid of purpose... Cut off from his religious, metaphysical, and transcendental roots, man is lost; all his actions become senseless, absurd, useless".<ref>Ionesco in Esslin, p. 23</ref>

=== Characters ===
The characters in Absurdist drama are lost and floating in an incomprehensible universe and they abandon rational devices and discursive thought because these approaches are inadequate.<ref>Watt and Richardson 1154</ref> Many characters appear as automatons stuck in routines speaking only in cliché (Ionesco called the Old Man and Old Woman in ''[[Les Chaises|The Chairs]]'' "übermarionettes").<ref>Lamont, p. 72</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scope.nottingham.ac.uk/article.php?id=85&issue=3|title=Open access journal for Film and Television Studies|publisher=}}</ref> Characters are frequently stereotypical, [[archetype|archetypal]], or flat character types as in [[Commedia dell'arte]].<ref>Anthony Cronin, Isaac Cronin. ''Samuel Beckett: the last modernist''. Da Capo Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-306-80898-6}}. p. 424.</ref><ref>Dave Bradby. ''Modern French Drama: 1940–1990''. Cambridge University Press, 1991. {{ISBN|0-521-40843-1}}. 58.</ref><ref name = Esslin402>Esslin, p. 402</ref>

The more complex characters are in crisis because the world around them is incomprehensible.<ref name="Esslin402" /> Many of Pinter's plays, for example, feature characters trapped in an enclosed space menaced by some force the character can't understand. Pinter's first play was ''[[The Room (play)|The Room]]'' – in which the main character, Rose, is menaced by Riley who invades her safe space though the actual source of menace remains a mystery<ref>Katherine H. Burkman. ''The dramatic world of Harold Pinter: its basis in ritual''. Ohio State University Press, 1971 {{ISBN|0-8142-0146-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8142-0146-6}}. pp. 70–73.</ref> – and this theme of characters in a safe space menaced by an outside force is repeated in many of his later works (perhaps most famously in ''[[The Birthday Party (play)|The Birthday Party]]''). In [[Friedrich Dürrenmatt]]'s ''The Visit,'' the main character, Alfred, is menaced by Claire Zachanassian; Claire, richest woman in the world with a decaying body and multiple husbands throughout the play, has guaranteed a payout for anyone in the town willing to kill Alfred.<ref>Roger Alan Crockett. ''Understanding Friedrich Dürrenmatt''.Univ of South Carolina Press, 1998. {{ISBN|1-57003-213-0}}, {{ISBN|978-1-57003-213-4}}. p.81</ref> Characters in Absurdist drama may also face the chaos of a world that science and logic have abandoned. Ionesco's recurring character Berenger, for example, faces a killer without motivation in ''[[Tueur sans gages|The Killer]]'', and Berenger's logical arguments fail to convince the killer that killing is wrong.<ref>Leonard Cabell Pronko. ''Avant-garde: the experimental theater in France''. University of California Press, 1966. pp. 96–102.</ref> In ''[[Rhinoceros (play)|Rhinocéros]]'', Berenger remains the only human on Earth who hasn't turned into a rhinoceros and must decide whether or not to conform.<ref>Harold Bloom. ''Bloom's Major Dramatists: Eugène Ionesco''. 2003. Infobase Publishing. p106-110.</ref><ref>Robert B. Heilman. ''The Ghost on the Ramparts''. University of Georgia Press, 2008 {{ISBN|0-8203-3265-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8203-3265-9}}. pp. 170–171.</ref> Characters may find themselves trapped in a routine, or in a metafictional conceit, trapped in a story; the title characters in [[Tom Stoppard]]'s ''[[Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead]]'', for example, find themselves in a story (''[[Hamlet]]'') in which the outcome has already been written.<ref name = Bradby59>Bradby, ''Modern'' p. 59</ref><ref>Victor L. Cahn. ''Beyond Absurdity: The Plays of Tom Stoppard''. London: Associated University Presses, 1979. pp. 36–39. Cahn asserts that though Stoppard began writing in the Absurdist mode, in his increasing focus on order, optimism, and the redemptive power of art, Stoppard has moved "beyond" Absurdism, as the title implies.</ref>

The plots of many Absurdist plays feature characters in interdependent pairs, commonly either two males or a male and a female. Some Beckett scholars call this the "pseudocouple".<ref>Ackerley, pp. 334, 465, 508</ref><ref>Alan Astro. ''Understanding Samuel Beckett''. Univ of South Carolina Press, 1990
{{ISBN|0-87249-686-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-87249-686-6}}. p. 116.</ref> The two characters may be roughly equal or have a begrudging interdependence (like Vladimir and Estragon in ''[[Waiting for Godot]]''<ref name="Bradby59" /> or the two main characters in ''[[Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead]]''); one character may be clearly dominant and may torture the passive character (like Pozzo and Lucky in ''[[Waiting for Godot]]'' or Hamm and Clov in ''[[Endgame (play)|Endgame]]''); the relationship of the characters may shift dramatically throughout the play (as in Ionesco's ''[[La Leçon|The Lesson]]''<ref name = Hinden401>Hinden, p. 401.</ref> or in many of Albee's plays, ''[[The Zoo Story]]''<ref name = Kane159>Leslie Kane. ''The language of silence: on the unspoken and the unspeakable in modern drama''. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1984. {{ISBN|0-8386-3187-8}}. pp. 159–160</ref><ref>Lisa M. Siefker Bailey, Bruce J. Mann. ''Edward Albee: A Casebook''. 2003. Routledge. pp. 33–44.</ref> for example).

=== Language ===
Despite its reputation for nonsense language, much of the dialogue in Absurdist plays is naturalistic. The moments when characters resort to nonsense language or clichés—when words appear to have lost their denotative function, thus creating misunderstanding among the characters—make the Theatre of the Absurd distinctive.<ref name="Lewis260" /><ref>Esslin, p. 26</ref> Language frequently gains a certain phonetic, rhythmical, almost musical quality, opening up a wide range of often comedic playfulness.<ref>Edward Albee, Philip C. Kolin. ''Conversations with Edward Albee''. Univ. Press of Mississippi, 1988. {{ISBN|0-87805-342-5}}. p. 189.</ref> [[Jean Tardieu]], for example, in the series of short pieces ''Theatre de Chambre'' arranged the language as one arranges music.<ref>Leonard Cabell Pronko. ''Avant-Garde''. University of California Press, 2003. pp.155–156</ref> Distinctively Absurdist language ranges from meaningless clichés to vaudeville-style word play to meaningless nonsense.<ref name="Hinden401" /><ref>Jeanette R. Malkin. ''Verbal Violence in Contemporary Drama: From Handke to Shepard''. Cambridge University Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-521-38335-8}}. p. 40.</ref> ''The Bald Soprano'', for example, was inspired by a language book in which characters would exchange empty clichés that never ultimately amounted to true communication or true connection.<ref>Styan, ''Dark'' p. 221</ref><ref>Erich Segal. ''The Death of Comedy''. Harvard University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0-674-01247-X}} p. 422.</ref> Likewise, the characters in ''The Bald Soprano''—like many other Absurdist characters—go through routine dialogue full of clichés without actually communicating anything substantive or making a human connection.<ref>Saddik, p. 30</ref><ref>Guido Almansi, Simon Henderson. ''Harold Pinter''. Routledge, 1983. {{ISBN|0-416-31710-3}}. p. 37.</ref> In other cases, the dialogue is purposefully elliptical; the language of Absurdist Theater becomes secondary to the poetry of the concrete and objectified images of the stage.<ref>Kane, pp. 17, 19</ref> Many of Beckett's plays devalue language for the sake of the striking tableau.<ref>Saddik, p. 32</ref> Harold Pinter—famous for his "Pinter pause"—presents more subtly elliptical dialogue; often the primary things characters should address are replaced by ellipsis or dashes. The following exchange between Aston and Davies in ''[[The Caretaker]]'' is typical of Pinter:

:ASTON. More or less exactly what you...
:DAVIES. That's it … that's what I'm getting at is … I mean, what sort of jobs … (''Pause''.)
:ASTON. Well, there's things like the stairs … and the … the bells …
:DAVIES. But it'd be a matter … wouldn't it … it'd be a matter of a broom … isn't it?<ref>Harold Pinter. ''The Caretaker''. DPS, 1991.{{ISBN|0822201844}}, p. 32</ref>

Much of the dialogue in Absurdist drama (especially in Beckett's and Albee's plays, for example) reflects this kind of evasiveness and inability to make a connection.<ref name="Kane159" /> When language that is apparently nonsensical appears, it also demonstrates this disconnection. It can be used for comic effect, as in Lucky's long speech in ''Godot'' when Pozzo says Lucky is demonstrating a talent for "thinking" as other characters comically attempt to stop him:

:LUCKY. Given the existence as uttered forth in the public works of Puncher and Wattmann of a personal God quaquaquaqua with white beard quaquaquaqua outside time without extension who from the heights of divine apathia divine athambia divine aphasia loves us dearly with some exceptions for reasons unknown but time will tell and suffers like the divine Miranda with those who for reasons unknown but time will tell are plunged in torment...<ref>David Bradby. ''Beckett, Waiting for Godot''. Camberidge University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0-521-59510-X}}, p. 81.</ref>

Nonsense may also be used abusively, as in Pinter's ''[[The Birthday Party (play)|The Birthday Party]]'' when Goldberg and McCann torture Stanley with apparently nonsensical questions and [[non sequitur (humor)|non-sequiturs]]:

:GOLDBERG. What do you use for pajamas?
:STANLEY. Nothing.
:GOLDBERG. You verminate the sheet of your birth.
:MCCANN. What about the Albigensenist heresy?
:GOLDBERG. Who watered the wicket in Melbourne?
:MCCANN. What about the blessed Oliver Plunkett?
:GOLDBERG. Speak up Webber. Why did the chicken cross the road?<ref>Harold Pinter. ''The Birthday Party and The Room: Two Plays''. Grove Press, 1994. {{ISBN|0-8021-5114-0}}. p. 51.</ref>

As in the above examples, nonsense in Absurdist theatre may be also used to demonstrate the limits of language while questioning or parodying the determinism of science and the knowability of truth.<ref>Raymond Williams. "''The Birthday Party'': Harold Pinter". ''Modern Critical Views: Harold Pinter''. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987. {{ISBN|0-87754-706-8}}. p. 22–23.</ref><ref>Marc Silverstein. ''Harold Pinter and the language of cultural power''. Bucknell University Press, 1993 {{ISBN|0-8387-5236-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8387-5236-4}}. pg. 33–34.</ref><ref>Richard Hornby. ''Drama, Metadrama and perception''. Associated University Presse, 1986 {{ISBN|0-8387-5101-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8387-5101-5}}. pp. 61–63.</ref> In Ionesco's ''The Lesson'', a professor tries to force a pupil to understand his nonsensical philology lesson:

:PROFESSOR. … In Spanish: the roses of my grandmother are as yellow as my grandfather who is Asiatic; in Latin: the roses of my grandmother are as yellow as my grandfather who is Asiatic. Do you detect the difference? Translate this into … Romanian
:PUPIL. The … how do you say "roses" in Romanian?
:PROFESSOR. But "roses", what else? … "roses" is a translation in Oriental of the French word "roses", in Spanish "roses", do you get it? In Sardanapali, "roses"...<ref>Eugène Ionesco. ''The Bald Soprano and Other Plays''. Grove Press, 1982. {{ISBN|0-8021-3079-8}}. p. 67.</ref>

=== Plot ===
Traditional plot structures are rarely a consideration in The Theatre of the Absurd.<ref>Claude Schumacher. ''Encyclopedia of Literature & Criticism''. 1990. Routledge. p. 10.</ref> Plots can consist of the absurd repetition of cliché and routine, as in ''Godot'' or ''[[The Bald Soprano]]''.<ref>Sydney Homan. ''Beckett's theaters: interpretations for performance''. Bucknell University Press, 1984. {{ISBN|0-8387-5064-8}}. p. 198.</ref> Often there is a menacing outside force that remains a mystery; in ''The Birthday Party'', for example, Goldberg and McCann confront Stanley, torture him with absurd questions, and drag him off at the end, but it is never revealed why.<ref>Kane, pp. 132, 134</ref> In later Pinter plays, such as ''The Caretaker''<ref>Katherine H. Burkman. ''The dramatic world of Harold Pinter: its basis in ritual''. Ohio State University Press, 1971. {{ISBN|0-8142-0146-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8142-0146-6}}. pp. 76–89</ref> and ''The Homecoming'',<ref>Marc Silverstein. ''Harold Pinter and the language of cultural power''. Bucknell University Press, 1993.{{ISBN|0-8387-5236-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8387-5236-4}}. pp. 76–94.</ref> the menace is no longer entering from the outside but exists within the confined space. Other Absurdists use this kind of plot, as in Edward Albee's ''[[A Delicate Balance (play)|A Delicate Balance]]'': Harry and Edna take refuge at the home of their friends Agnes and Tobias because they suddenly become frightened.<ref>Stephen James Bottoms. ''The Cambridge Companion to Edward Albee''. Cambridge University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|0-521-83455-4}}. p. 221.</ref> They have difficulty explaining what has frightened them:

:HARRY: There was nothing … but we were very scared.
:EDNA: We … were … terrified.
:HARRY: We were scared. It was like being lost: very young again, with the dark, and lost. There was no … thing … to be … frightened of, but …
:EDNA: WE WERE FRIGHTENED … AND THERE WAS NOTHING.<ref>Edward Albee. ''A delicate balance: a play in three acts''. Samuel French, Inc., 1994. {{ISBN|0-573-60792-3}}. p. 31.</ref>

Absence, emptiness, nothingness, and unresolved mysteries are central features in many Absurdist plots:<ref>Les Essif. ''Empty figure on an empty stage: the theatre of Samuel Beckett and his generation''. Indiana University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0-253-33847-6}}. pp. 1–9</ref> for example, in ''The Chairs'', an old couple welcomes a large number of guests to their home, but these guests are invisible, so all we see are empty chairs, a representation of their absence.<ref>Alice Rayner. ''Ghosts: death's double and the phenomena of theatre''. U of Minnesota Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0-8166-4544-2}}. p. 120.</ref> Likewise, the action of ''Godot'' is centered around the absence of a man named Godot, for whom the characters perpetually wait. In many of Beckett's later plays, most features are stripped away and what's left is a minimalistic tableau: a woman walking slowly back and forth in ''[[Footfalls]]'',<ref>Morris Beja, S. E. Gontarski, Pierre A. G. Astier. ''Samuel Beckett—humanistic perspectives''.Ohio State University Press, 1983. {{ISBN|0-8142-0334-5}}. p. 8</ref> for example, or in ''[[Breath (play)|Breath]]'' only a junk heap on stage and the sounds of breathing.<ref>Alan Astro. ''Understanding Samuel Beckett''. Univ of South Carolina Press, 1990. {{ISBN|0-87249-686-4}}. p. 177.</ref><ref>Ruby Cohn. ''A Beckett Canon''. University of Michigan Press, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-472-11190-9}} pp. 298, 337.</ref>

The plot may also revolve around an unexplained metamorphosis, a supernatural change, or a shift in the laws of physics. For example, in Ionesco's ''[[Amédée ou comment s'en débarrasser|Amédée, or How to Get Rid of It]]'', a couple must deal with a corpse that is steadily growing larger and larger; Ionesco never fully reveals the identity of the corpse, how this person died, or why it's continually growing, but the corpse ultimately – and, again, without explanation – floats away.<ref>Lamont, p. 101</ref><ref>Justin Wintle. ''The Makers of Modern Culture''. Routledge, 2002. {{ISBN|0-415-26583-5}}. p. 243.</ref> In Jean Tardieu's "The Keyhole" a lover watches a woman through a keyhole as she removes her clothes and then her flesh.<ref>Pronko, p. 157.</ref>

Like Pirandello, many Absurdists use meta-theatrical techniques to explore role fulfillment, fate, and the theatricality of theatre. This is true for many of Genet's plays: for example, in ''The Maids'', two maids pretend to be their mistress; in ''The Balcony'' brothel patrons take on elevated positions in role-playing games, but the line between theatre and reality starts to blur. Another complex example of this is ''[[Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead]]'': it's a play about two minor characters in ''[[Hamlet]]''; these characters, in turn, have various encounters with the players who perform ''The Mousetrap'', the play-within-the-play in ''Hamlet''.<ref name="Bradby59" /><ref>June Schlueter. ''Metafictional Characters in Modern Drama''. Columbia University Press, 1979. {{ISBN|0-231-04752-5}}. p. 53.</ref> In Stoppard's ''Travesties'', James Joyce and Tristan Tzara slip in and out of the plot of ''The Importance of Being Earnest''.<ref>Peter K. W. Tan, Tom Stoppard. ''A stylistics of drama: with special focus on Stoppard's Travesties''. NUS Press, 1993. {{ISBN|9971-69-182-5}}, {{ISBN|978-9971-69-182-0}}.</ref>

Plots are frequently cyclical:<ref name="Hinden401" /> for example, ''Endgame'' begins where the play ended<ref>Katherine H. Burkman. ''Myth and ritual in the plays of Samuel Beckett''. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1987. {{ISBN|0-8386-3299-8}}. p. 24.</ref> – at the beginning of the play, Clov says, "Finished, it's finished, nearly finished, it must be nearly finished"<ref>Samuel Beckett. ''Endgame: a play in one act, followed by Act without words, a mime for one player''.Grove Press, 1958. {{ISBN|0-8021-5024-1}}. p. 1.</ref> – and themes of cycle, routine, and repetition are explored throughout.<ref>[[Andrew Karpati Kennedy|Andrew K. Kennedy]]. ''Samuel Beckett''. Cambridge University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|0-521-27488-5}}. p. 48.</ref>


== Референце ==
== Референце ==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}
== Литература ==
== Литература ==
*Ackerley, C. J. and S. E. Gontarski, ed. ''The Grove Companion to Samuel Beckett.'' New York: Grove P, 2004.
*Adamov, Jacqueline, "Censure et représentation dans le théâtre d’Arthur Adamov", in P. Vernois (Textes recueillis et présentés par), ''L’Onirisme et l’insolite dans le théâtre français contemporain''. Actes du colloque de Strasbourg, Paris, Editions Klincksieck, 1974.
*Baker, William, and John C. Ross, comp. ''Harold Pinter: A Bibliographical History''. London: The [[British Library]] and New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll P, 2005. {{ISBN|1-58456-156-4}} (10). {{ISBN|978-1-58456-156-9}} (13).
*Bennett, Michael Y. ''Reassessing the Theatre of the Absurd: Camus, Beckett, Ionesco, Genet, and Pinter.'' New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-230-11338-1}}
*Bennett, Michael Y. ''The Cambridge Introduction to Theatre and Literature of the Absurd.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. {{ISBN|978-1107635517}}
*Brook, Peter. ''The Empty Space: A Book About the Theatre: Deadly, Holy, Rough, Immediate''. Touchstone, 1995. {{ISBN|0-684-82957-6}} (10).
*Caselli, Daniela. ''Beckett's Dantes: Intertextuality in the Fiction and Criticism''. {{ISBN|0-7190-7156-9}}.
*Cronin, Anthony. ''Samuel Beckett: The Last Modernist''. New York: Da Capo P, 1997.
*Driver, Tom Faw. ''Jean Genet''. New York: Columbia UP, 1966.
*Esslin, Martin. ''The theatre of the absurd''. London: Pelican, 1980.
*Gaensbauer, Deborah B. ''Eugène Ionesco Revisited''. New York: Twayne, 1996.
*Haney, W.S., II. "Beckett Out of His Mind: The Theatre of the Absurd". ''Studies in the Literary IMagination''. Vol. 34 (2).
*''La Nouvelle Critique'', numéro spécial "Arthur Adamov", août-septembre 1973.
*Lewis, Allan. ''Ionesco''. New York: Twayne, 1972.
*McMahon, Joseph H. ''The Imagination of Jean Genet''. New Haven: Yale UP, 1963.
*Mercier, Vivian. ''Beckett/Beckett''. Oxford UP, 1977. {{ISBN|0-19-281269-6}}.
*Youngberg, Q. ''Mommy's American Dream in Edward Albee's the American Dream''. ''The Explicator'', (2), 108.
*Zhu, Jiang. "Analysis on the Artistic Features and Themes of the Theater of the Absurd". ''Theory & Practice in Language Studies'', 3(8).


== External links ==
* [http://vitalpoetics.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/Vitalpoetics-Vol.1-No.2-2008.pdf Reading of Samuel Beckett’s ''Krapp's Last Tape'', Luigi Pirandello's ''Henry IV'' and Eugène Ionesco's ''Rhinoceros'']
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[[Категорија:Историја драме]]
[[Категорија:Историја драме]]
[[Категорија:Драма]]
[[Категорија:Театар апсурда]]
[[Категорија:Театар апсурда]]
[[Категорија:Књижевност 20. века]]
[[Категорија:Књижевност 20. века]]

Верзија на датум 14. јун 2020. у 00:10

Театар апсурда (фр. Théâtre de l'Absurde) је термин који се користи за представе фикције апсурда, а којим се означавају остварења неколицине драмских писаца из касних 1940-их (до касних 1960-их), а такође и за театар који развио полазећи од ових дела. Он је изразио уверење да у безбожном универзуму људско постојање нема смисла или сврхе, па стога ни комуникација нема никаквог смисла. Логичке конструкције и аргументи дају право да се говори о ирационалном и нелогичном што доводи до крајњег закључка позоришта, тишине.[1]

Етимологија

Критичар Мартин Еслин је сковао термин театар апсурда, у свом есеју из 1960. године,[2] а касније је издао књигу под истим именом. Објавио је представе које су базиране на теми апсурда, слично као Албер Ками, који овај израз употребљава у есеју „Мит о Сизифу“ из 1942.[3] Апсурд је у овим комадима представљен у облику човекове реакције на свет без смисла или као човек којим се управља као марионетом од стране невидљивих спољашњих сила. Иако се израз примењује на широк спектар представа, постоје неке опште карактеристике које су заједничке за већину комада: комедија која се меша са трагичним и стравичним сликама, ликови коју су ухваћени у безнадежним ситуацијама, приморани да понављају бесмислене радње; дијалог пун клишеа, игра речи и глупости; завере које се циклично или апсурдно понављају; пародија или бежање од реализма и концепта „добро направљена игра“.

Драмски писци чија се дела углавном означавају као театар апсурда су: Семјуел Бекет, Ежен Јонеско, Артур Адамов, Жан Жене, Харолд Пинтер,[4] Луиђи Пирандело,Том Стопард, Фридрих Диренмат, Алехандро Ходоровски, Фернандо Арабал, Вацлав Хавел и Едвард Олби.[5]

Порекло

У првом издању Театара апсурда Еслин је приметио да рад ових драматурга даје уметнички смисао филозофији Албера Камија да је живот сам по себи без смисла, као што је илустровано у свом делу Мит о Сизифу. У првом издању Еслин је представио четири дефинишућа драматурга покрета Семјуела Бекета, Артура Адамова, Ежена Јонеска и Жана Женеа, а у каснијим издањима додао је и петог драмског писца, Харолда Пинтер, иако сваки од ових писаца има јединствене преокупације и карактеристике које надилазе термин "апсурд."[6][7] Остали писци које су Еслин и други критичари повезали са овом групом су Том Стопард,[8] Фридрих Диренмат,[9] Ферандо Арабал,[10] Едвард Олби,[11] Борис Вијан,[12] Жан Тардије.[6][7][10]

Значајни претходници

Иако етикета "Театар апсурда" обухвата велики број драмских текстова различитих стилова, они имају неке уобичајене стилске претходнике (Еслин ,1961). Ови претходници укључују елизабетанску трагикомедију, формално експериментирање, патафизику, надреализам, дадаизам и, што је најважније, егзистенцијализам.

Елизабетанска –трагикомедија

Већина "апсурдистичких" представа је трагикомедија.[13][14] Како Нел каже у Бекетовом Крају игре, „Ништа није смешније од несреће ... то је најкомичнија ствар на свету“ [15] Еслин наводи Вилијама Шекспира као утицај на овај аспект "драме апсурда".[16]Шекспиров утицај признат је директно у насловима Јонесковог Магбета и Стопардовог Розенкранц и Гилденстерн су мртви. Фриедрих Диренмат у свом есеју "Проблеми театра" каже: "Комедија је за нас погодна ... Али, трагика је и даље могућа чак и ако чиста трагедија не постоји. Трагику можемо постићи из комедије. То можемо извести као застрашујући тренутак, као понор који се нагло отвара; заиста су многе Шекспирове трагедије заправо комедије из којих произилази трагично."[17]

Иако је прожет са значајном количином трагедије, театар апсурда одјекује кроз друге сјајне форме комичне представе, тврди Еслин, од комедије дел арте до водвиља.[13][18] Такође, Еслин наводи комичаре раног филма и уметнике мјузикхола као што су Чарли Чаплин, Кејстон полицајци и Бастер Китон као директни утицаји. (Китон је чак глумио у Бекетовом филму 1965 .године.)[19]

Формално експериментирање

Као експериментални облик позоришта, многи драматурзи Театра апсурда користе технике које су позајмили од ранијих иноватора. Писци и технике које се често спомињу у вези са Театром апсурда укључују песнике глупости из 19. века, попут Луиса Керола или Едварда Лира;[20] пољског драматурга Станислава Игнаци Виткјевича;[21] руског Данила Хармса [22] Николај Ердман[23] и други; технике дистанцирања Бертолта Брехта у његовом "Епском театру" ;[24] и "представе из снова" Аугуста Стриндберга.[6][25]

One commonly cited precursor is Luigi Pirandello, especially Six Characters in Search of an Author.[25][26] Pirandello was a highly regarded theatrical experimentalist who wanted to bring down the fourth wall presupposed by the realism of playwrights such as Henrik Ibsen. According to W. B. Worthen, Six Characters and other Pirandello plays use "Metatheatre—roleplaying, plays-within-plays, and a flexible sense of the limits of stage and illusion—to examine a highly-theatricalized vision of identity".[27]

Another influential playwright was Guillaume Apollinaire whose The Breasts of Tiresias was the first work to be called "surreal".[28][29][30]

Патафизика, надреализам и дадаизам

One of the most significant common precursors is Alfred Jarry whose wild, irreverent, and lascivious Ubu plays scandalized Paris in the 1890s. Likewise, the concept of 'pataphysics—"the science of imaginary solutions"—first presented in Jarry's Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien (Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, pataphysician)[31] was inspirational to many later Absurdists,[29] some of whom joined the Collège de 'pataphysique, founded in honor of Jarry in 1948[28][32] (Ionesco,[33] Arrabal, and Vian[33][34] were given the title Transcendent Satrape of the Collège de 'pataphysique). The Theatre Alfred Jarry, founded by Antonin Artaud and Roger Vitrac, housed several Absurdist plays, including ones by Ionesco and Adamov.[35][36]

Artaud's "The Theatre of Cruelty" (presented in The Theatre and Its Double) was a particularly important philosophical treatise. Artaud claimed theatre's reliance on literature was inadequate and that the true power of theatre was in its visceral impact.[37][38][39] Artaud was a Surrealist, and many other members of the Surrealist group were significant influences on the Absurdists.[40][41][42]

Absurdism is also frequently compared to Surrealism's predecessor, Dadaism (for example, the Dadaist plays by Tristan Tzara performed at the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich).[43] Many of the Absurdists had direct connections with the Dadaists and Surrealists. Ionesco,[44][45] Adamov,[46][47] and Arrabal[48] for example, were friends with Surrealists still living in Paris at the time including Paul Eluard and André Breton, the founder of Surrealism, and Beckett translated many Surrealist poems by Breton and others from French into English.[49][50]

Веза са егзистенцијализмом

Many of the Absurdists were contemporaries with Jean-Paul Sartre, the philosophical spokesman for existentialism in Paris, but few Absurdists actually committed to Sartre's own existentialist philosophy, as expressed in Being and Nothingness, and many of the Absurdists had a complicated relationship with him. Sartre praised Genet's plays, stating that for Genet, "Good is only an illusion. Evil is a Nothingness which arises upon the ruins of Good".[51]

Ionesco, however, hated Sartre bitterly.[52] Ionesco accused Sartre of supporting Communism but ignoring the atrocities committed by Communists; he wrote Rhinoceros as a criticism of blind conformity, whether it be to Nazism or Communism; at the end of the play, one man remains on Earth resisting transformation into a rhinoceros[53][54] Sartre criticized Rhinoceros by questioning: "Why is there one man who resists? At least we could learn why, but no, we learn not even that. He resists because he is there".[55][56] Sartre's criticism highlights a primary difference between the Theatre of the Absurd and existentialism: the Theatre of the Absurd shows the failure of man without recommending a solution.[57] In a 1966 interview, Claude Bonnefoy, comparing the Absurdists to Sartre and Camus, said to Ionesco, "It seems to me that Beckett, Adamov and yourself started out less from philosophical reflections or a return to classical sources, than from first-hand experience and a desire to find a new theatrical expression that would enable you to render this experience in all its acuteness and also its immediacy. If Sartre and Camus thought out these themes, you expressed them in a far more vital contemporary fashion". Ionesco replied, "I have the feeling that these writers – who are serious and important – were talking about absurdity and death, but that they never really lived these themes, that they did not feel them within themselves in an almost irrational, visceral way, that all this was not deeply inscribed in their language. With them it was still rhetoric, eloquence. With Adamov and Beckett it really is a very naked reality that is conveyed through the apparent dislocation of language".[58]

In comparison to Sartre's concepts of the function of literature, Samuel Beckett's primary focus was on the failure of man to overcome "absurdity" - or the repetition of life even though the end result will be the same no matter what and everything is essentially pointless - as James Knowlson says in Damned to Fame, Beckett's work focuses, "on poverty, failure, exile and loss — as he put it, on man as a 'non-knower' and as a 'non-can-er' ."[59] Beckett's own relationship with Sartre was complicated by a mistake made in the publication of one of his stories in Sartre's journal Les Temps Modernes.[60] Beckett said, though he liked Nausea, he generally found the writing style of Sartre and Heidegger to be "too philosophical" and he considered himself "not a philosopher".[61]

Историја

The "Absurd" or "New Theater" movement was originally a Paris-based (and a Rive Gauche) avant-garde phenomenon tied to extremely small theaters in the Quartier Latin. Some of the Absurdists, such as Jean Genet,[62] Jean Tardieu,[63] and Boris Vian.,[64] were born in France. Many other Absurdists were born elsewhere but lived in France, writing often in French: Samuel Beckett from Ireland;[63] Eugène Ionesco from Romania;[63] Arthur Adamov from Russia;[63] Alejandro Jodorowsky from Chile and Fernando Arrabal from Spain.[65] As the influence of the Absurdists grew, the style spread to other countries—with playwrights either directly influenced by Absurdists in Paris or playwrights labelled Absurdist by critics. In England some of those whom Esslin considered practitioners of the Theatre of the Absurd include Harold Pinter,[63] Tom Stoppard,[66] N. F. Simpson,[63] James Saunders,[67] and David Campton;[68] in the United States, Edward Albee,[63] Sam Shepard,[69] Jack Gelber,[70] and John Guare;[71] in Poland, Tadeusz Różewicz,[63] Sławomir Mrożek,[63] and Tadeusz Kantor;[72] in Italy, Dino Buzzati;[73] and in Germany, Peter Weiss,[74] Wolfgang Hildesheimer,[63] and Günter Grass.[63] In India, both Mohit Chattopadhyay[75] and Mahesh Elkunchwar[75] have also been labeled Absurdists. Other international Absurdist playwrights include Tawfiq el-Hakim from Egypt;[76] Hanoch Levin from Israel;[77] Miguel Mihura from Spain;[78] José de Almada Negreiros from Portugal;[79] Mikhail Volokhov[80] from Russia; Yordan Radichkov from Bulgaria;[81] and playwright and former Czech President Václav Havel.[63]

Важне представе

Legacy

Echoes of elements of "The Theatre of the Absurd" can be seen in the work of many later playwrights, from more avant-garde or experimental playwrights like Suzan-Lori Parks—in The Death of the Last Black Man in the Whole Entire World and The America Play,[105] for example—to relatively realistic playwrights like David Mamet—in Glengarry Glen Ross, which Mamet dedicated to Harold Pinter.[106][107] Irish playwright Martin McDonagh in plays such as Pillowman[108] addresses some of the themes and uses some of the techniques of Absurdism, especially reminiscent of Beckett[109] and Pinter.[110][111]

Theatrical features

Plays within this group are absurd in that they focus not on logical acts, realistic occurrences, or traditional character development; they, instead, focus on human beings trapped in an incomprehensible world subject to any occurrence, no matter how illogical.[112][113][114] The theme of incomprehensibility is coupled with the inadequacy of language to form meaningful human connections.[28] According to Martin Esslin, Absurdism is "the inevitable devaluation of ideals, purity, and purpose"[115] Absurdist drama asks its viewer to "draw his own conclusions, make his own errors".[116] Though Theatre of the Absurd may be seen as nonsense, they have something to say and can be understood".[117] Esslin makes a distinction between the dictionary definition of absurd ("out of harmony" in the musical sense) and drama's understanding of the Absurd: "Absurd is that which is devoid of purpose... Cut off from his religious, metaphysical, and transcendental roots, man is lost; all his actions become senseless, absurd, useless".[118]

Characters

The characters in Absurdist drama are lost and floating in an incomprehensible universe and they abandon rational devices and discursive thought because these approaches are inadequate.[119] Many characters appear as automatons stuck in routines speaking only in cliché (Ionesco called the Old Man and Old Woman in The Chairs "übermarionettes").[120][121] Characters are frequently stereotypical, archetypal, or flat character types as in Commedia dell'arte.[122][123][124]

The more complex characters are in crisis because the world around them is incomprehensible.[124] Many of Pinter's plays, for example, feature characters trapped in an enclosed space menaced by some force the character can't understand. Pinter's first play was The Room – in which the main character, Rose, is menaced by Riley who invades her safe space though the actual source of menace remains a mystery[125] – and this theme of characters in a safe space menaced by an outside force is repeated in many of his later works (perhaps most famously in The Birthday Party). In Friedrich Dürrenmatt's The Visit, the main character, Alfred, is menaced by Claire Zachanassian; Claire, richest woman in the world with a decaying body and multiple husbands throughout the play, has guaranteed a payout for anyone in the town willing to kill Alfred.[126] Characters in Absurdist drama may also face the chaos of a world that science and logic have abandoned. Ionesco's recurring character Berenger, for example, faces a killer without motivation in The Killer, and Berenger's logical arguments fail to convince the killer that killing is wrong.[127] In Rhinocéros, Berenger remains the only human on Earth who hasn't turned into a rhinoceros and must decide whether or not to conform.[128][129] Characters may find themselves trapped in a routine, or in a metafictional conceit, trapped in a story; the title characters in Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead, for example, find themselves in a story (Hamlet) in which the outcome has already been written.[130][131]

The plots of many Absurdist plays feature characters in interdependent pairs, commonly either two males or a male and a female. Some Beckett scholars call this the "pseudocouple".[132][133] The two characters may be roughly equal or have a begrudging interdependence (like Vladimir and Estragon in Waiting for Godot[130] or the two main characters in Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead); one character may be clearly dominant and may torture the passive character (like Pozzo and Lucky in Waiting for Godot or Hamm and Clov in Endgame); the relationship of the characters may shift dramatically throughout the play (as in Ionesco's The Lesson[134] or in many of Albee's plays, The Zoo Story[135][136] for example).

Language

Despite its reputation for nonsense language, much of the dialogue in Absurdist plays is naturalistic. The moments when characters resort to nonsense language or clichés—when words appear to have lost their denotative function, thus creating misunderstanding among the characters—make the Theatre of the Absurd distinctive.[28][137] Language frequently gains a certain phonetic, rhythmical, almost musical quality, opening up a wide range of often comedic playfulness.[138] Jean Tardieu, for example, in the series of short pieces Theatre de Chambre arranged the language as one arranges music.[139] Distinctively Absurdist language ranges from meaningless clichés to vaudeville-style word play to meaningless nonsense.[134][140] The Bald Soprano, for example, was inspired by a language book in which characters would exchange empty clichés that never ultimately amounted to true communication or true connection.[141][142] Likewise, the characters in The Bald Soprano—like many other Absurdist characters—go through routine dialogue full of clichés without actually communicating anything substantive or making a human connection.[143][144] In other cases, the dialogue is purposefully elliptical; the language of Absurdist Theater becomes secondary to the poetry of the concrete and objectified images of the stage.[145] Many of Beckett's plays devalue language for the sake of the striking tableau.[146] Harold Pinter—famous for his "Pinter pause"—presents more subtly elliptical dialogue; often the primary things characters should address are replaced by ellipsis or dashes. The following exchange between Aston and Davies in The Caretaker is typical of Pinter:

ASTON. More or less exactly what you...
DAVIES. That's it … that's what I'm getting at is … I mean, what sort of jobs … (Pause.)
ASTON. Well, there's things like the stairs … and the … the bells …
DAVIES. But it'd be a matter … wouldn't it … it'd be a matter of a broom … isn't it?[147]

Much of the dialogue in Absurdist drama (especially in Beckett's and Albee's plays, for example) reflects this kind of evasiveness and inability to make a connection.[135] When language that is apparently nonsensical appears, it also demonstrates this disconnection. It can be used for comic effect, as in Lucky's long speech in Godot when Pozzo says Lucky is demonstrating a talent for "thinking" as other characters comically attempt to stop him:

LUCKY. Given the existence as uttered forth in the public works of Puncher and Wattmann of a personal God quaquaquaqua with white beard quaquaquaqua outside time without extension who from the heights of divine apathia divine athambia divine aphasia loves us dearly with some exceptions for reasons unknown but time will tell and suffers like the divine Miranda with those who for reasons unknown but time will tell are plunged in torment...[148]

Nonsense may also be used abusively, as in Pinter's The Birthday Party when Goldberg and McCann torture Stanley with apparently nonsensical questions and non-sequiturs:

GOLDBERG. What do you use for pajamas?
STANLEY. Nothing.
GOLDBERG. You verminate the sheet of your birth.
MCCANN. What about the Albigensenist heresy?
GOLDBERG. Who watered the wicket in Melbourne?
MCCANN. What about the blessed Oliver Plunkett?
GOLDBERG. Speak up Webber. Why did the chicken cross the road?[149]

As in the above examples, nonsense in Absurdist theatre may be also used to demonstrate the limits of language while questioning or parodying the determinism of science and the knowability of truth.[150][151][152] In Ionesco's The Lesson, a professor tries to force a pupil to understand his nonsensical philology lesson:

PROFESSOR. … In Spanish: the roses of my grandmother are as yellow as my grandfather who is Asiatic; in Latin: the roses of my grandmother are as yellow as my grandfather who is Asiatic. Do you detect the difference? Translate this into … Romanian
PUPIL. The … how do you say "roses" in Romanian?
PROFESSOR. But "roses", what else? … "roses" is a translation in Oriental of the French word "roses", in Spanish "roses", do you get it? In Sardanapali, "roses"...[153]

Plot

Traditional plot structures are rarely a consideration in The Theatre of the Absurd.[154] Plots can consist of the absurd repetition of cliché and routine, as in Godot or The Bald Soprano.[155] Often there is a menacing outside force that remains a mystery; in The Birthday Party, for example, Goldberg and McCann confront Stanley, torture him with absurd questions, and drag him off at the end, but it is never revealed why.[156] In later Pinter plays, such as The Caretaker[157] and The Homecoming,[158] the menace is no longer entering from the outside but exists within the confined space. Other Absurdists use this kind of plot, as in Edward Albee's A Delicate Balance: Harry and Edna take refuge at the home of their friends Agnes and Tobias because they suddenly become frightened.[159] They have difficulty explaining what has frightened them:

HARRY: There was nothing … but we were very scared.
EDNA: We … were … terrified.
HARRY: We were scared. It was like being lost: very young again, with the dark, and lost. There was no … thing … to be … frightened of, but …
EDNA: WE WERE FRIGHTENED … AND THERE WAS NOTHING.[160]

Absence, emptiness, nothingness, and unresolved mysteries are central features in many Absurdist plots:[161] for example, in The Chairs, an old couple welcomes a large number of guests to their home, but these guests are invisible, so all we see are empty chairs, a representation of their absence.[162] Likewise, the action of Godot is centered around the absence of a man named Godot, for whom the characters perpetually wait. In many of Beckett's later plays, most features are stripped away and what's left is a minimalistic tableau: a woman walking slowly back and forth in Footfalls,[163] for example, or in Breath only a junk heap on stage and the sounds of breathing.[164][165]

The plot may also revolve around an unexplained metamorphosis, a supernatural change, or a shift in the laws of physics. For example, in Ionesco's Amédée, or How to Get Rid of It, a couple must deal with a corpse that is steadily growing larger and larger; Ionesco never fully reveals the identity of the corpse, how this person died, or why it's continually growing, but the corpse ultimately – and, again, without explanation – floats away.[166][167] In Jean Tardieu's "The Keyhole" a lover watches a woman through a keyhole as she removes her clothes and then her flesh.[168]

Like Pirandello, many Absurdists use meta-theatrical techniques to explore role fulfillment, fate, and the theatricality of theatre. This is true for many of Genet's plays: for example, in The Maids, two maids pretend to be their mistress; in The Balcony brothel patrons take on elevated positions in role-playing games, but the line between theatre and reality starts to blur. Another complex example of this is Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead: it's a play about two minor characters in Hamlet; these characters, in turn, have various encounters with the players who perform The Mousetrap, the play-within-the-play in Hamlet.[130][169] In Stoppard's Travesties, James Joyce and Tristan Tzara slip in and out of the plot of The Importance of Being Earnest.[170]

Plots are frequently cyclical:[134] for example, Endgame begins where the play ended[171] – at the beginning of the play, Clov says, "Finished, it's finished, nearly finished, it must be nearly finished"[172] – and themes of cycle, routine, and repetition are explored throughout.[173]

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  159. ^ Stephen James Bottoms. The Cambridge Companion to Edward Albee. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-83455-4. p. 221.
  160. ^ Edward Albee. A delicate balance: a play in three acts. Samuel French, Inc., 1994. ISBN 0-573-60792-3. p. 31.
  161. ^ Les Essif. Empty figure on an empty stage: the theatre of Samuel Beckett and his generation. Indiana University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-253-33847-6. pp. 1–9
  162. ^ Alice Rayner. Ghosts: death's double and the phenomena of theatre. U of Minnesota Press, 2006. ISBN 0-8166-4544-2. p. 120.
  163. ^ Morris Beja, S. E. Gontarski, Pierre A. G. Astier. Samuel Beckett—humanistic perspectives.Ohio State University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-8142-0334-5. p. 8
  164. ^ Alan Astro. Understanding Samuel Beckett. Univ of South Carolina Press, 1990. ISBN 0-87249-686-4. p. 177.
  165. ^ Ruby Cohn. A Beckett Canon. University of Michigan Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-472-11190-9 pp. 298, 337.
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Литература

  • Ackerley, C. J. and S. E. Gontarski, ed. The Grove Companion to Samuel Beckett. New York: Grove P, 2004.
  • Adamov, Jacqueline, "Censure et représentation dans le théâtre d’Arthur Adamov", in P. Vernois (Textes recueillis et présentés par), L’Onirisme et l’insolite dans le théâtre français contemporain. Actes du colloque de Strasbourg, Paris, Editions Klincksieck, 1974.
  • Baker, William, and John C. Ross, comp. Harold Pinter: A Bibliographical History. London: The British Library and New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll P, 2005. ISBN 1-58456-156-4 (10). ISBN 978-1-58456-156-9 (13).
  • Bennett, Michael Y. Reassessing the Theatre of the Absurd: Camus, Beckett, Ionesco, Genet, and Pinter. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. ISBN 978-0-230-11338-1
  • Bennett, Michael Y. The Cambridge Introduction to Theatre and Literature of the Absurd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-1107635517
  • Brook, Peter. The Empty Space: A Book About the Theatre: Deadly, Holy, Rough, Immediate. Touchstone, 1995. ISBN 0-684-82957-6 (10).
  • Caselli, Daniela. Beckett's Dantes: Intertextuality in the Fiction and Criticism. ISBN 0-7190-7156-9.
  • Cronin, Anthony. Samuel Beckett: The Last Modernist. New York: Da Capo P, 1997.
  • Driver, Tom Faw. Jean Genet. New York: Columbia UP, 1966.
  • Esslin, Martin. The theatre of the absurd. London: Pelican, 1980.
  • Gaensbauer, Deborah B. Eugène Ionesco Revisited. New York: Twayne, 1996.
  • Haney, W.S., II. "Beckett Out of His Mind: The Theatre of the Absurd". Studies in the Literary IMagination. Vol. 34 (2).
  • La Nouvelle Critique, numéro spécial "Arthur Adamov", août-septembre 1973.
  • Lewis, Allan. Ionesco. New York: Twayne, 1972.
  • McMahon, Joseph H. The Imagination of Jean Genet. New Haven: Yale UP, 1963.
  • Mercier, Vivian. Beckett/Beckett. Oxford UP, 1977. ISBN 0-19-281269-6.
  • Youngberg, Q. Mommy's American Dream in Edward Albee's the American Dream. The Explicator, (2), 108.
  • Zhu, Jiang. "Analysis on the Artistic Features and Themes of the Theater of the Absurd". Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 3(8).

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