Економија рада

Економија рада (енгл. Labour economics) проучава како су радници подељени по занимањима, како се одређују њихове плате и како на њихову ефикасност утичу разни фактори. Labour is a commodity that is supplied by labourers, usually in exchange for a wage paid by demanding firms. Because these labourers exist as parts of a social, institutional, or political system, labour economics must also account for social, cultural and political variables. Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers) and the demanders of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. These patterns exist because each individual in the market is presumed to make rational choices based on the information that they know regarding wage, desire to provide labour, and desire for leisure. Labour markets are normally geographically bounded, but the rise of the internet has brought about a 'planetary labour market' in some sectors.

Радна снага државе укључује све оне који раде за добит на било који начин, као и незапослене који траже посао. Много фактора утиче на начин на који се радници користе и плаћају, укључујући и:

• Квалитете радне снаге (као што су здравље, ниво образовања, поделе специјалних тренинга и знања и степен покретљивости),
• Структурне карактеристике економије (пропорција између тешке производње, високотехнолошке производње и сервисне индустрије),
• Институционалне факторе (укључујући обим и снагу синдиката и радничких удружења, и постојање закона који одређује минималну плату).

Остали фактори као што су обичај и промене у пословном циклусу су такође уважени. Одређени општи трендови су широко прихваћени од стране економиста рада. На пример, ниво плата је виши на пословима са високим ризиком, у индустријама које захтевају виши ниво образовања или обуке, у економијама које имају висок проценат таквих индустрија и у индустријама које имају веома развијен синдикални покрет.

Макро и микро анализа тржишта рада

Постоје две стране економије рада. Економија рада се генерално може посматрати као примена микроекономских или макроекономских техника на тржишту рада. Микроекономске технике проучавају улогу појединаца и појединачних фирми на тржишту рада. Макроекономске технике посматрају међуодносе између тржишта рада, тржишта роба, тржишта новца и спољнотрговинског тржишта. Сагледава како ове интеракције утичу на макро варијабле као што су нивои запослености, стопе учешћа, агрегатни приход и бруто домаћи производ.

Macroeconomics of labour markets

Job advertisement board in Shenzhen

The labour market in macroeconomic theory shows that the supply of labour exceeds demand, which has been proven by salary growth that lags productivity growth. When labour supply exceeds demand, salary faces downward pressure due to an employer's ability to pick from a labour pool that exceeds the jobs pool. However, if the demand for labour is larger than the supply, salary increases, as employee have more bargaining power while employers have to compete for scarce labour.

The Labour force (LF) is defined as the number of people of working age, who are either employed or actively looking for work (unemployed). The labour force participation rate (LFPR) is the number of people in the labour force divided by the size of the adult civilian noninstitutional population (or by the population of working age that is not institutionalized), LFPR = LF/Population.

The non-labour force includes those who are not looking for work, those who are institutionalized (such as in prisons or psychiatric wards), stay-at-home spouses, children not of working age, and those serving in the military. The unemployment level is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed. The unemployment rate is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The employment rate is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population (or by the population of working age). In these statistics, self-employed people are counted as employed.

The labour market has the ability to create a higher derivative efficiency of labour, especially on a national and international level, compared to simpler forms of labour distribution, leading to a higher financial GDP growth and output. An efficient labor market is important for the private sector as it drives up derivative income through the reduction of relative costs of labour. This presupposes that division of labour is used as a method to attain cost efficiency.

Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and unfilled vacancies are called stock variables because they measure a quantity at a point in time. They can be contrasted with flow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the labour force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants, and retirements. Changes in unemployment depend on inflows (non-employed people starting to look for jobs and employed people who lose their jobs that are looking for new ones) and outflows (people who find new employment and people who stop looking for employment). When looking at the overall macroeconomy, several types of unemployment have been identified, which can be separated into two categories of natural and unnatural unemployment.

Natural Unemployment

• Frictional unemployment – This reflects the fact that it takes time for people to find and settle into new jobs that they feel are appropriate for them and their skill set. Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment; for example, internet search engines have reduced the cost and time associated with locating employment or personnel selection.
• Structural unemployment – The number of jobs available in an industry are not sufficient enough to provide jobs to all persons who are interested in working or qualified to work in that industry. This can be due to the changes in industries prevalent in a country or because wages for the industry are too high, causing people to want to supply their labour to that industry.
• Natural rate of unemployment (also known as full employment) – This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment, that excludes cyclical contributions of unemployment (e.g. recessions) and seasonal unemployment. It is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to achieve, given that some frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable. Economists do not agree on the level of the natural rate, with estimates ranging from 1% to 5%, or on its meaning – some associate it with "non-accelerating inflation". The estimated rate varies between countries and across time.

Unnatural Unemployment

• Demand deficient unemployment (also known as cyclical unemployment) – In Keynesian economics, any level of unemployment beyond the natural rate is probably due to insufficient goods demand in the overall economy. During a recession, aggregate expenditure is deficient causing the underutilisation of inputs (including labour). Aggregate expenditure (AE) can be increased, according to Keynes, by increasing consumption spending (C), increasing investment spending (I), increasing government spending (G), or increasing the net of exports minus imports (X−M), since AE = C + I + G + (X−M).
• Seasonal unemployment – Unemployment due to seasonal fluctuations of demand for workers across industries, such as in the retail industry after holidays that involve a lot of shopping are over.

Литература

• Richard Blundell and Thomas MaCurdy, 2008. "labour supply," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition
• Freeman, R.B., 1987. "Labour economics," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 72–76.
• John R. Hicks, 1932, 2nd ed., 1963. The Theory of Wages. London, Macmillan.
• Handbook of Labor Economics. Elsevier. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Links to one-page chapter previews for each volume:

Orley C. Ashenfelter and Richard Layard, ed., 1986, v. 1 & 2;

Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 1999, v. 3A, 3B, and 3C

Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 2011, v. 4A & 4B.

• Mark R. Killingsworth, 1983. Labour Supply. Cambridge: Cambridge Surveys of Economic Literature.
• Jacob Mincer, 1974. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Anindya Bakrie & Morendy Octora, 2002. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York, Singapore National University : Columbia University Press.
• Acocella, Nicola; Di Bartolomeo, Giovanni; Hibbs, Douglas A. (2008). „Labor market regimes and the effects of monetary policy”. Journal of Macroeconomics. 30: 134—156. S2CID 5758901. doi:10.1016/j.jmacro.2006.08.006. hdl:2077/25796 . 
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• Bailey, Martha J. (2006). „More Power to the Pill: The Impact of Contraceptive Freedom on Women's Life Cycle Labor Supply”. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 121 (1): 289—320. ISSN 0033-5533. 
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Спољашње везе

• Ageing workers EU-OSHA
• The Labour Economics Gateway – Collection of Internet sites that are of interest to labour economists
• Labour & Worklife Program at Harvard Law School, Changing Labour Markets Project
• W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research
• ILO: Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM). 2007
• LabourFair Resources – Link to Fair Labour Practices
• Labour Research Network – Labour research programme treating various fields
• Labour Research Department – Independent labour economics research organisation