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[[Датотека:Food chain-2.png|мини|Ланац исхране: Chlorogonium euchlorum, Anaspides tasmaniae, Alburnus alburnus, Perca Flavescens, Esox lucius1, Pandion haliaetus]]
[[Датотека:Food chain-2.png|мини|Ланац исхране: Chlorogonium euchlorum, Anaspides tasmaniae, Alburnus alburnus, Perca Flavescens, Esox lucius1, Pandion haliaetus]]

Појам '''ланац исхране''' у [[екологија|екологији]] и екотоксикологији означава линеарни пренос [[храна|храном]] преузете [[енергија|енергије]] од једне [[становништво|популације]] [[организам]]а на следећу, односно, кад се једна популација храни оном која јој у том ланцу претходи.
Појам '''ланац исхране''' у [[екологија|екологији]] и екотоксикологији означава линеарни пренос [[храна|храном]] преузете [[енергија|енергије]] од једне [[становништво|популације]] [[организам]]а на следећу, односно, кад се једна популација храни оном која јој у том ланцу претходи. Ланац исхране је linear network of links in a [[food web]] starting from producer organisms (such as [[grass]] or [[tree]]s which use [[Electromagnetic radiation|radiation]] from the [[Sun]] to make their food via [[photosynthesis]]) and ending at an [[apex predator]] species (like [[grizzly bear]]s or [[killer whale]]s), [[detritivore]]s (like [[earthworm]]s or [[woodlice]]), or [[decomposer]] species (such as [[fungi]] or [[bacteria]]). A food chain also shows how organisms are related to each other by the food they eat. Each level of a food chain represents a different [[trophic level]]. A food chain differs from a food web because the complex network of [[polyphagous|different animals]]' feeding relations are aggregated and the chain only follows a direct, linear pathway of [[monophagous|one animal at a time]]. Natural interconnections between food chains make it a food web.

A common metric used to quantify food web trophic structure is food chain length. In its simplest form, the length of a chain is the number of links between a trophic consumer and the base of the web. The mean chain length of an entire web is the arithmetic average of the lengths of all chains in the food web.<ref name=" Briand87">{{cite journal | last1=Briand | first1=F. | last2=Cohen | first2=J. E. | title=Environmental correlates of food chain length. | year=1987 | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | issue=4829 | pages=956–960 | doi=10.1126/science.3672136 | url=http://spider.allegheny.edu/employee/M/mostrofs/mywebfiles/Bio330/Bio330Readings/briand_and_cohen.pdf | volume=238 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425235347/http://spider.allegheny.edu/employee/M/mostrofs/mywebfiles/Bio330/Bio330Readings/briand_and_cohen.pdf | archive-date=2012-04-25 | pmid=3672136 | bibcode=1987Sci...238..956B }}</ref><ref name="PostPace">{{cite journal | last1=Post | first1=D. M. | last2=Pace | first2=M. L. | last3=Haristis | first3=A. M. | title=Parasites dominate food web links | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=103 | issue=30 | year=2006 | pages=11211–11216 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0604755103 | pmc=1544067 | pmid=16844774| bibcode=2006PNAS..10311211L | doi-access=free }}</ref> The food chain is an energy source diagram. The food chain begins with a producer, which is eaten by a primary consumer. The primary consumer may be eaten by a secondary consumer, which in turn may be consumed by a tertiary consumer. For example, a food chain might start with a green plant as the producer, which is eaten by a snail, the primary consumer. The snail might then be the prey of a secondary consumer such as a frog, which itself may be eaten by a tertiary consumer such as a snake.

Food chains are very important for the survival of most species. When only one element is removed from the food chain it can result in extinction of a species in some cases. The foundation of the food chain consists of [[primary producers]]. Primary producers, or [[autotrophs]], utilize energy derived from either sunlight or inorganic chemical compounds to create complex organic compounds, whereas species at higher [[trophic levels]] cannot and so must consume producers or other life that itself consumes producers. Because the sun's light is necessary for photosynthesis, most life could not exist if the sun disappeared. Even so, it has recently been discovered that there are some forms of life, [[chemotrophs]], that appear to gain all their metabolic energy from chemosynthesis driven by hydrothermal vents, thus showing that some life may not require solar energy to thrive.

[[Decomposers]], which feed on dead animals, break down the organic compounds into simple nutrients that are returned to the soil. These are the simple nutrients that plants require to create organic compounds. It is estimated that there are more than 100,000 different decomposers in existence.
Many food webs have a [[keystone species]]. A keystone species is a species that has a large impact on the surrounding environment and can directly affect the food chain. If this keystone species dies off it can set the entire food chain off balance. Keystone species keep herbivores from depleting all of the foliage in their environment and preventing mass extinction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.nau.edu/lrm22/lessons/food_chain/food_chain.html|title=The Food Chain|website=www2.nau.edu|access-date=2019-05-04}}</ref>

Food chains were first introduced by the Arab scientist and philosopher [[Al-Jahiz]] in the 10th century and later popularized in a book published in 1927 by [[Charles Sutherland Elton|Charles Elton]], which also introduced the food web concept.<ref name="Elton27">{{cite book|last=Elton|first=C. S.|title=Animal Ecology|publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson|place=London, UK.|year=1927|isbn=0-226-20639-4|url = https://archive.org/stream/animalecology00elto}}</ref><ref name="Allesina08">{{cite journal | last1=Allesina | first1=S. | last2=Alonso | first2=D. | last3=Pascal | first3=M. | title=A general model for food web structure. | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume=320 | issue=5876 | pages=658–661 | doi=10.1126/science.1156269 | url=http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/Secret/PlantGenome/General%20Model%20for%20Food%20WEb%20Structure.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515183126/http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/Secret/PlantGenome/General%20Model%20for%20Food%20WEb%20Structure.pdf | archive-date=2016-05-15 | year=2008 | pmid=18451301| bibcode=2008Sci...320..658A | s2cid=11536563 }}</ref><ref name="Egerton07">{{cite journal | last1=Egerton | first1=F. N. | year=2007 | title=Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970 | journal=Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America | volume=88 | pages=50–69 | doi=10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>

== Дужина ==

[[File: Chesapeake Waterbird Food Web.jpg|thumb|250px|left|This [[food web]] of waterbirds from [[Chesapeake Bay]] is a network of food chains]]

The length of a food chain is a [[continuous variable]] providing a measure of the passage of energy and an index of [[Biological organisation|ecological structure]] that increases through the linkages from the lowest to the highest trophic (feeding) levels.<ref name="Vander99">{{cite journal |last1=Vander Zanden |first1=M. J. |last2=Shuter |first2=B. J. |last3=Lester |first3=N. |last4=Rasmussen |first4=J. B. |title=Patterns of food chain length in lakes: A stable isotope study. |journal=[[The American Naturalist]] |volume=154 |issue=4 |pages=406–416 |year=1999 |doi=10.1086/303250 |url=http://www.d.umn.edu/~thrabik/Vander%20Zanden%20et%20al.%201999.pdf |pmid=10523487 |s2cid=4424697 |access-date=2011-06-14 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050003/http://www.d.umn.edu/~thrabik/Vander%20Zanden%20et%20al.%201999.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{quote box
| quote = Food chains are directional paths of trophic energy or, equivalently, sequences of links that start with basal species, such as producers or fine organic matter, and end with consumer organisms.<ref name="Martinez91">{{cite journal | last1=Martinez | first1=N. D. | title=Artifacts or attributes? Effects of resolution on the Little Rock Lake food web | journal=[[Ecological Monographs]] | year=1991 | volume=61 | issue=4 | pages=367–392 | url=http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/72841.pdf | doi=10.2307/2937047| jstor=2937047 }}</ref>{{Rp|370}}
| width = 215px
| align = left}}

Food chains are often used in [[ecological modeling]] (such as a three-species food chain). They are simplified abstractions of real food webs, but complex in their dynamics and mathematical implications.<ref name="PostConners">{{cite journal |last1=Post |first1=D. M. |last2=Conners |first2=M. E. |last3=Goldberg |first3=D. S. |title=Prey preference by a top predator and the stability of linked food chains. |journal=[[Ecology (journal)|Ecology]] |year=2000 |volume=81 |pages=8–14 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[0008:PPBATP]2.0.CO;2 |url=http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/FPAS/bcs/courses/Ecology/ECOL2452/Papers/Predation/Prey%20Preference%20by%20a%20Top%20Predator%20and%20the%20Stability%20of%20Linked%20Food%20Chains.pdf}}</ref>

[[Ecology|Ecologists]] have formulated and tested hypotheses regarding the nature of ecological patterns associated with food chain length, such as increasing length increasing with [[ecosystem]] size, reduction of energy at each successive level, or the proposition that long food chain lengths are unstable.<ref name="Vander99" /> Food chain studies have an important role in [[ecotoxicology]] studies, which trace the pathways and [[biomagnification]] of [[environmental contaminant]]s.<ref name="Odum05">{{cite book | last1=Odum |first1=E. P. |last2=Barrett |first2=G. W.|title=Fundamentals of ecology | publisher= [[Cengage Learning|Brooks/Cole]] |isbn= 978-0-534-42066-6 | year=2005 |page=598 | url = http://www.cengage.com/search/totalsearchresults.do?N=16&image.x=0&image.y=0&keyword_all=fundamentals+of+ecology}}</ref>

Food chain length is important because the amount of energy transferred decreases as trophic level increases; generally only ten percent of the total energy at one trophic level is passed to the next, as the remainder is used in the [[metabolic process]]. There are usually no more than five tropic levels in a food chain.<ref name="CK12">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ck12.org/biology/food-chain/lesson/Food-Chains-and-Food-Webs-Advanced-BIO-ADV/|title=Food Chain|last1=Wilkin|first1=Douglas|last2=Brainard|first2=Jean|website=[[CK-12]]|language=en|date=2015-12-11|access-date=2019-11-06}}</ref> Humans are able to receive more energy by going back a level in the chain and consuming the food before, for example getting more energy per pound from consuming a salad than an animal which ate lettuce.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Rafferty|first=John P.|title=Food chain &#124; Definition, Types, & Facts|collaboration=Kara Rogers, Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/food-chain|entry=Food chain|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref><ref name="Rowland2015"/>

The efficiency of a food chain depends on the energy first consumed by the primary producers.<ref name="Rowland2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Rowland |first1=Freya E. |last2=Bricker |first2=Kelly J. |last3=Vanni |first3=Michael J. |last4=González |first4=María J. |date=2015-04-13 |title=Light and nutrients regulate energy transfer through benthic and pelagic food chains |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274903199 |journal=[[Oikos (journal)|Oikos]] |publisher=Nordic Foundation Oikos |issn=1600-0706 |volume=124 |issue=12 |doi=10.1111/oik.02106 |access-date=2019-10-25 |via=[[ResearchGate]] |pages=1648–1663}}</ref> The primary consumer gets its energy from the producer and passes it to the secondary and tertiary consumers.


== Концепт ланца исхране и кружења материје ==
== Концепт ланца исхране и кружења материје ==
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== Види још ==
== Види још ==
* [[Сплет ланаца исхране]]
* [[Сплет ланаца исхране]]

== Референце ==
{{reflist}}

== Литература ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Podolinsky S |year=2004|title=Socialism and the Unity of Physical Forces|journal=[[Organization & Environment]]|volume=17|issue=1|pages=61–75|doi=10.1177/1086026603262092|s2cid=144332347}}
* {{cite book| vauthors = Weiner DR |year=2000|title=Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia|publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh Press]]|location=U.S.}}
* {{cite book|first=Simon A. |last=Levin|title=Encyclopedia of Biodiversity|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=z-cBnwEACAAJ}}|year=2013|publisher=ACADEMIC PressINC|isbn=978-0-12-384719-5}}
* {{cite book|first1=Christian |last1=Lévêque|first2=Jean-Claude|last2= Mounolou|title=Biodiversity|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ZFZqeeltG7QC}}|date=16 January 2004|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-84957-6}}
* {{cite book|first1=Lynn |last1=Margulis|first2=Karlene V.|last2= Schwartz|first3=Michael |last3=Dolan|title=Diversity of Life: The Illustrated Guide to the Five Kingdoms|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=8wJXWBMsEOkC}}|year=1999|publisher= [[Jones & Bartlett Publishers]]|isbn=978-0-7637-0862-7 |author-link1=Margulis, L.|location=Sudbury}}
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Markov | first1 = A. V. | last2 = Korotayev | first2 = A. V. | doi = 10.1016/j.palwor.2007.01.002 | title = Phanerozoic marine biodiversity follows a hyperbolic trend | journal = Palaeoworld | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 311–318 | year = 2007 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Moustakas | first1 = A. | last2 = Karakassis | first2 = I. | doi = 10.1007/s00477-008-0254-2 | title = A geographic analysis of the published aquatic biodiversity research in relation to the ecological footprint of the country where the work was done | journal = Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | pages = 737–748 | year = 2008 | s2cid = 121649697 }}
* {{cite book|first1=Michael J. |last1=Novacek|title=The Biodiversity Crisis: Losing what Counts|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=MIV9QgAACAAJ}}|year=2001|publisher=New Press|isbn=978-1-56584-570-1}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110101153304/http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/178462/index.en.shtml D+C-Interview with Achim Steiner, UNEP: "Our generation's responsibility"]
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Mora | first1 = C. | last2 = Tittensor | first2 = D. P. | last3 = Adl | first3 = S. | last4 = Simpson | first4 = A. G. B. | last5 = Worm | first5 = B. | editor1-last = Mace | editor1-first = Georgina M | title = How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 9 | issue = 8 | pages = e1001127 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21886479| pmc =3160336 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Pereira | first1 = H. M. | last2 = Navarro | first2 = L. M. | last3 = Martins | first3 = I. S. S. | s2cid = 154898897 | title = Global Biodiversity Change: The Bad, the Good, and the Unknown | doi = 10.1146/annurev-environ-042911-093511 | journal = Annual Review of Environment and Resources | volume = 37 | pages = 25–50 | year = 2012 }}
* {{cite journal|vauthors=Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF|title=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice|journal=[[BioScience]]|date= 2017|volume=67|issue=12|pages=1026–1028|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix125|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last= Wilson|first=E. O.|date=2016|title=Half-Earth: Our Planet's Fight for Life|publisher=Liveright|isbn=978-1-63149-082-8|author-link=E. O. Wilson|title-link=Half-Earth}}
* {{cite book
|title=Earth Science: An illustrated guide to science
|url=https://archive.org/details/earthscienceillu0000unse
|first1=Simon
|last1=Adams
|first2=David
|last2=Lambert
|publisher=Chelsea House
|location=New York, NY
|year=2006
|isbn=978-0-8160-6164-8
}}
* {{cite book
|title=American Heritage dictionary of the English language
|edition=4th
|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company
|location=Boston, MA
|isbn=978-0-395-82517-4
|author=Joseph P. Pickett (executive editor)
|year=1992
|ref={{harvid|American Heritage}}
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7
}}
* {{cite book
|title=How Does the Earth Work? Physical Geology ''and the'' Process of Science
|url=https://archive.org/details/howdoesearthwork0000smit
|first1=Gary A.
|last1=Smith
|first2=Aurora
|last2=Pun
|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall
|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ
|year=2006
|isbn=978-0-13-034129-7
}}
* {{cite book
|title=Earth Cycles: A historical perspective
|url=https://archive.org/details/earthcycleshisto0000oldr
|first=David
|last=Oldroyd
|publisher=Greenwood Press
|location=Westport, CT
|year=2006
|isbn=978-0-313-33229-6
}}
{{refend}}


== Спољашње везе ==
== Спољашње везе ==
{{Commonscat|Food chain}}
{{Commonscat|Food chain}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/geology/tecmech.html |title=The mechanism behind plate tectonics |date=2007-02-05 |access-date=2007-11-17 |author=Simison, W. Brian |ref={{harvid|Simison|2007}} }}


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{{нормативна контрола}}
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[[Категорија:Екологија]]
[[Категорија:Екологија]]
[[Категорија:Екосистем]]
[[Категорија:Екосистем]]

[[ca:Xarxa tròfica]]
[[he:מארג מזון]]
[[ht:Rezo alimantè]]

Верзија на датум 28. мај 2022. у 21:03

Ланац исхране: Chlorogonium euchlorum, Anaspides tasmaniae, Alburnus alburnus, Perca Flavescens, Esox lucius1, Pandion haliaetus

Појам ланац исхране у екологији и екотоксикологији означава линеарни пренос храном преузете енергије од једне популације организама на следећу, односно, кад се једна популација храни оном која јој у том ланцу претходи. Ланац исхране је linear network of links in a food web starting from producer organisms (such as grass or trees which use radiation from the Sun to make their food via photosynthesis) and ending at an apex predator species (like grizzly bears or killer whales), detritivores (like earthworms or woodlice), or decomposer species (such as fungi or bacteria). A food chain also shows how organisms are related to each other by the food they eat. Each level of a food chain represents a different trophic level. A food chain differs from a food web because the complex network of different animals' feeding relations are aggregated and the chain only follows a direct, linear pathway of one animal at a time. Natural interconnections between food chains make it a food web.

A common metric used to quantify food web trophic structure is food chain length. In its simplest form, the length of a chain is the number of links between a trophic consumer and the base of the web. The mean chain length of an entire web is the arithmetic average of the lengths of all chains in the food web.[1][2] The food chain is an energy source diagram. The food chain begins with a producer, which is eaten by a primary consumer. The primary consumer may be eaten by a secondary consumer, which in turn may be consumed by a tertiary consumer. For example, a food chain might start with a green plant as the producer, which is eaten by a snail, the primary consumer. The snail might then be the prey of a secondary consumer such as a frog, which itself may be eaten by a tertiary consumer such as a snake.

Food chains are very important for the survival of most species. When only one element is removed from the food chain it can result in extinction of a species in some cases. The foundation of the food chain consists of primary producers. Primary producers, or autotrophs, utilize energy derived from either sunlight or inorganic chemical compounds to create complex organic compounds, whereas species at higher trophic levels cannot and so must consume producers or other life that itself consumes producers. Because the sun's light is necessary for photosynthesis, most life could not exist if the sun disappeared. Even so, it has recently been discovered that there are some forms of life, chemotrophs, that appear to gain all their metabolic energy from chemosynthesis driven by hydrothermal vents, thus showing that some life may not require solar energy to thrive.

Decomposers, which feed on dead animals, break down the organic compounds into simple nutrients that are returned to the soil. These are the simple nutrients that plants require to create organic compounds. It is estimated that there are more than 100,000 different decomposers in existence.

Many food webs have a keystone species. A keystone species is a species that has a large impact on the surrounding environment and can directly affect the food chain. If this keystone species dies off it can set the entire food chain off balance. Keystone species keep herbivores from depleting all of the foliage in their environment and preventing mass extinction.[3]

Food chains were first introduced by the Arab scientist and philosopher Al-Jahiz in the 10th century and later popularized in a book published in 1927 by Charles Elton, which also introduced the food web concept.[4][5][6]

Дужина

This food web of waterbirds from Chesapeake Bay is a network of food chains

The length of a food chain is a continuous variable providing a measure of the passage of energy and an index of ecological structure that increases through the linkages from the lowest to the highest trophic (feeding) levels.[7]

Food chains are directional paths of trophic energy or, equivalently, sequences of links that start with basal species, such as producers or fine organic matter, and end with consumer organisms.[8]:370

Food chains are often used in ecological modeling (such as a three-species food chain). They are simplified abstractions of real food webs, but complex in their dynamics and mathematical implications.[9]

Ecologists have formulated and tested hypotheses regarding the nature of ecological patterns associated with food chain length, such as increasing length increasing with ecosystem size, reduction of energy at each successive level, or the proposition that long food chain lengths are unstable.[7] Food chain studies have an important role in ecotoxicology studies, which trace the pathways and biomagnification of environmental contaminants.[10]

Food chain length is important because the amount of energy transferred decreases as trophic level increases; generally only ten percent of the total energy at one trophic level is passed to the next, as the remainder is used in the metabolic process. There are usually no more than five tropic levels in a food chain.[11] Humans are able to receive more energy by going back a level in the chain and consuming the food before, for example getting more energy per pound from consuming a salad than an animal which ate lettuce.[12][13]

The efficiency of a food chain depends on the energy first consumed by the primary producers.[13] The primary consumer gets its energy from the producer and passes it to the secondary and tertiary consumers.

Концепт ланца исхране и кружења материје

Концепт ланца исхране је из више углова гледања поједностављен, линеарни приступ токовима енергије и материје у екосистему. Појам је заступао прије свега британски зоолог и еколог Чарлс Елтон током прве половине 20. вијека. На томе се темељи концепт Елтонове пирамиде биомасе састављене од различитих храњивих материја и живих организама карактеристичних за одређени екосистем.

Врсте у одређеном екосистему могу се разврстати на различите нивое прехрамбеног ланца. Поједностављена и углавном само у идеалном случају тачна подјела прехрамбеног ланца је на примарне продуценте (види и аутотрофија) (зелене биљке или хемосинтетичке бактерије), конзументе и деструенте. Врло поједностављен примјер линеарног хранидбеног ланца је ланац трава - зебра - лав, или у мору мале алге - планктон - усати китови.

Деструенти (гљиве, бактерије али и црви, чланконошци и други који судјелују у механичкој разградњи) хране се разградњом свих учесника ланца и при томе враћају материју из ланца, тако да се круг затвара.

Стварни прехрамбени ланац и прехрамбене мреже

Појам прехрамбеног ланца за готово све екосистеме представља јако поједностављену апстракцију, тако да је ближи стварности појам прехрамбена мрежа како би се бар дјелимично изразила сва комплексност различитих начина исхране.

Врсте које се хране како биљном тако и животињском храном (на примјер галебови, свиње или шимпанзе) или такве које се хране како живим животињама али дијелом и лешинама (на примјер хијене и лавови) није могуће прегледно укључити нити у шему прехрамбеног ланца нити прехрамбене мреже, због чега је „стварна прехрамбена мрежа“ у природи врло комплексна и непрегледна творба. Поред тога, многе врсте током живота већ према развојном стадијуму (многи инсекти) или према годишњем добу (многе птице) мијењају састав своје прехране.

Значење у екотоксикологији

Занимање јавности за појам и значење ланца исхране пробуђено је повезано с извештајима о гомилању штетних материја цијелом његовом дужином. Под одређеним услови, у цијелом ланцу могу се накупити прије свега споро разградиве штетне материје (на примјер, иони тешких метала) растворљиве у мастима.

Види још

Референце

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