Bespolno razmnožavanje — разлика између измена

Садржај обрисан Садржај додат

Инлајн

Верзија на датум 28. фебруар 2023. у 00:23

Aseksualna reprodukcija kod *Marchantiophyta*, klijanje lista

Bespolno, vegetativno ili aseksualno razmnožavanje je proces u kojem organizmi stvaraju genetički slične ili identične sopstvene kopije, bez doprinosa genetičkog materijala nekog drugog organizma. Poznato je i pod nazivima bespolna reprodukcija.

Bakterije se bespolno dele putem binarne fisije; virusi preuzmu kontrolu nad ćelijom domaćina da bi proizveli više virusa; hidra i kvasac su u mogućnosti da se razmnožavaju pupljenjem. Ovi organizmi često ne poseduju različite polove, a sposobni su za "cepanje" u dva ili više sopstvenih primeraka. Većina biljaka ima sposobnost za bespolnu reprodukciju, kao i mrav vrste Mycocepurus smithii. Smatra se da se u potpunosti i redovno razmnožavaju aseksualnim putem.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Najpoznatiji primeri bespolnog razmnožavanja se primenjuju u voćarstvu ili hortikulturi, gde se od pojedinih biljnih tkiva i organa dobijaju celovite nove jedinke. Najčešći reprodukcijski materijal su oreznice izdanaka, listovi, pupovi, položenice, stoloni, podanci, gomolji, rizomi i druge pogodne vegetativne strukture.

Savremeni način vegetativnog razmnožavanja u ovim i drugim oblastima je putem kulture tkiva, kojom se jedna biljka može umnožiti u praktično beskonačno mnogo primeraka.

Neke vrste koje se reprodukuju bespolno, kao što su hidra i kvasac mogu da pređu na polno razmnožavanje. Na primer, većina biljki je sposobna za vegetativno razmnožavanje – reprodukciju bez semena ili spora, mada se može se reprodukovati i seksualno. Isto tako, bakterije mogu razmenjivati genetičke informacije, tj. rekombinovati genetički materijal, putem povremenog konjugiranja.^[4]^[3]

Drugi načini aseksualna reprodukcije uključuju partenogenezu, fragmentaciju i formiranje spora, koji uključuju samo mitozu. Partenogeneza je rast i razvoj embriona ili semena bez oplodnje jajeta spermatozoidom. Prirodno se javlja kod nekih vrsta, uključujući i niže biljke (gde se naziva apomiksija), beskičmenjaka (npr. dafnija uši, neke pčele i parazitske osice) i kičmenjaka (npr. neki reptili^[5] ribe, uključujući i ajkule, a vrlo retko i ptice).^{[тражи се извор]}

Ponekad se takođe koristi za opisivanje reprodukcije kod hermafroditnih vrsta, koje se mogu samostalno oploditi.

Tipovi aseksualne reprodukcije

Fisija

Prokaryotes (Archaea and Bacteria) reproduce asexually through binary fission, in which the parent organism divides in two to produce two genetically identical daughter organisms. Eukaryotes (such as protists and unicellular fungi) may reproduce in a functionally similar manner by mitosis; most of these are also capable of sexual reproduction.

Multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in many protists, e.g. sporozoans and algae. The nucleus of the parent cell divides several times by mitosis, producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates, creating multiple daughter cells.^[6]^[7]^[8]

In apicomplexans, multiple fission, or schizogony appears either as merogony, sporogony or gametogony. Merogony results in merozoites, which are multiple daughter cells, that originate within the same cell membrane,^[9]^[10] sporogony results in sporozoites, and gametogony results in microgametes.

Pupljenje

Some cells divide by budding (for example baker's yeast), resulting in a "mother" and a "daughter" cell that is initially smaller than the parent. Budding is also known on a multicellular level; an animal example is the hydra,^[11] which reproduces by budding. The buds grow into fully matured individuals which eventually break away from the parent organism.

Internal budding is a process of asexual reproduction, favoured by parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii. It involves an unusual process in which two (endodyogeny) or more (endopolygeny) daughter cells are produced inside a mother cell, which is then consumed by the offspring prior to their separation.^[12]

Vegetativna propagacija

Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores and thus without syngamy or meiosis.^[13] Examples of vegetative reproduction include the formation of miniaturized plants called plantlets on specialized leaves, for example in kalanchoe (Bryophyllum daigremontianum) and many produce new plants from rhizomes or stolon (for example in strawberry). Other plants reproduce by forming bulbs or tubers (for example tulip bulbs and Dahlia tubers). Some plants produce adventitious shoots and may form a clonal colony. In these examples, all the individuals are clones, and the clonal population may cover a large area.^[14]

Naizmenična seksualna i aseksualna reprodukcija

Neke vrste vrše prelaze između seksualne i aseksualne strategije u zavisnosti od okolnosti, što je sposobnost poznata kao heterogamija. Alternacije su uočene kod nekoliko vrsta rotatorija (ciklična partenogeneza e.g. kod vrste Brachionus) i nekoliko tipova insekata, kao što su listne uši koje pod određenim uslovima proizvode jaja koja ne prolaze kroz mejozu, te tako kloniraju sebe. Južnoafričke pčele Apis mellifera podvrsta. capensis se mogu reprodukovati aseksualno putem procesa zvanog telitoki. Nekoliko vrsta vodozemaca, reptila, i ptica ima sličnu sposobnost (pogledajte na primer partenogenezu). Slatkovodni ljuskar Daphnia se reprodukuje putem partenogeneze u proleće da bi brzo popunio jezera, zatim prelazi na seksualnu reprodukciju sa povećanjem intenziteta kompeticije i predacije. Još jedan primer su već pomenute monogonontne rotatorije roda Brachionus, koje se reprodukuju putem ciklične partenogeneze: pri niskim gustinama populacije ženke se reprodukuju aseksualno, dok se pri većim gustinama hemijski znaci akumuliraju i indukuju prelaz na seksualnu reprodukciju. Mnogi protisti i gljive alterniraju između seksualne i aseksualne reprodukcije.

Sluzava plesan Dictyostelium podleže binarnoj fiziji (mitozi) u obliku jednoćelijske amebe pod povoljnim okolnostima. Međutim, kad okolnosti nisu povoljne, ćelije formiraju agregate i slede jedan od dva različita razvojna puta, u zavisnosti od uslova. U društvenom putu, one formiraju višećelijskog puža koji zatim formira plodonosno telo sa aseksualno generisanim sporama. U seksualnom putu, dve ćelije se spajaju da formiraju gigantsku ćeliju koja se razvija u veliku cistu. Kad ta makrocista proklija, ona oslobađa stotine amebnih ćelija koje su produkt mejotičke rekombinacije između dve originalne ćelije.^[15]

Hife obične plesni (Rhizopus) imaju sposobnost da proizvedu mitotičke kao i mejotičke spore. Mnoge alge slično tome prelaze između seksualne i aseksualne reprodukcije.^[16] Brojne biljke koriste seksualni i aseksualni način formiranja novih biljki, neke vrste menjaju svoje primarne modove reprodukcije od seksualnih do aseksualnih sa promenom okolnosti životne sredine.^[17]

Vidi još

Reference

^ Dobzhansky T. (1970): Genetics of the evolutionary process. Columbia, New York, ISBN 978-0-231-02837-0.
^ Mayr E. (2000): The growth of biological thought – Diversity, evolution, and inheritance, 11th printing, first: Copyright © 1982. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cambridge (Mass.), London (England) , ISBN 978-0-674-36445-5 ; ISBN 978-0-674-36446-2.
^ ^а ^б Sofradžija A., Šoljan D., Hadžiselimović R. (1996): Biologija 1, Svjetlost, Sarajevo, ISBN 978-9958-10-686-6.
^ Mayr E. (2000): The growth of biological thought – Diversity, evolution, and inheritance, 11th printing, first: Copyright 1982. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cambridge (Mass.), London (England) , ISBN 978-0-674-36445-5 ; ISBN 978-0-674-36446-2.
^ Halliday T. R., Kraig A., Eds (1986): Reptiles & Amphibians. Torstar Books, ISBN 978-0-920269-81-7.
^ „Cell reproduction”. Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Britannica Educational Publishing (2011). Fungi, Algae, and Protists. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-61530-463-9.
^ P.Puranik; Asha Bhate (2007). Animal Forms And Functions: Invertebrata. Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-791-6.
^ Margulis, Lynn; McKhann, Heather I.; Olendzenski, Lorraine (2001). Illustrated glossary of protoctista: vocabulary of the algae, apicomplexa, ciliates, foraminifera, microspora, water molds, slime molds, and the other protoctists. Jones & Bartlett learn. ISBN 978-0-86720-081-2.
^ Yoshinori Tanada; Harry K. Kaya (1993). Insect pathology. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 978-0-12-683255-6.
^ Leeuwenhoek, Antoni Van (1703-12-31). „IV. Part of a letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, F. R. S. concerning green weeds growing in water, and some animalcula found about them.”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (на језику: енглески). 23 (283): 1304—1311. ISSN 0261-0523. S2CID 186209549. doi:10.1098/rstl.1702.0042.
^ Smyth, James Desmond; Wakelin, Derek (1994). Introduction to animal parasitology (3 изд.). Cambridge University Press. стр. 101—102. ISBN 978-0-521-42811-8.
^ „Asexual Reproduction”. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Приступљено 13. 8. 2010.
^ „Celebrating Wildflowers - Fading Gold - How Aspens Grow”. Fs.fed.us. 11. 5. 2010. Архивирано из оригинала 23. 9. 2010. г.
^ R. S. Mehrotra; K. R. Aneja (1990). An Introduction to Mycology. New Age International. стр. 83 ff. ISBN 978-81-224-0089-2. Приступљено 4. 8. 2010.
^ Kathleen M. Cole; Robert G. Sheath (1990). Biology of the red algae. Cambridge University Press. стр. 469—. ISBN 978-0-521-34301-5. Приступљено 4. 8. 2010.
^ Edward G. Reekie; Fakhri A. Bazzaz (28. 10. 2005). Reproductive allocation in plants. Academic Press. стр. 99—. ISBN 978-0-12-088386-8. Приступљено 4. 8. 2010.

Literatura

Graham, L., J. Graham, & L. Wilcox. 2003. Plant Biology. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.: pp. 258–259.
Raven, P.H., Evert, R.F., Eichhorn, S.E. 2005. Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers, NY.
Avise, J. 2008. Clonality: The Genetics, Ecology, and Evolution of Sexual Abstinence in Vertebrate Animals. Oxford University Press
Friedrich W. Stöcker, Gerhard Dietrich (Hrsg.): Brockhaus abc Biologie. 7. Auflage. Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1986, ISBN 978-3-325-00071-9.
Gvaladze G.E. (1976). Forms of Apomixis in the genus Allium L. In: S.S. Khokhlov (Ed.): Apomixis and Breeding, Amarind Pub., New Delhi-Bombay-Calcutta-New York pp. 160–165
Bhojwani S.S.& Bhatnagar S.P. (1988). The Embryology of angiosperms. Vikas Publishing house Pvt.Ltd. New Delhi.
Heslop-Harrison, J. (1972) "Sexuality in Angiosperms,"pp. 133–289, In Steward,F.C. (ed.) Plant Physiology, Vol. 6C, Academic Press New York.
„vegetative reproduction | horticulture”. Encyclopedia Britannica. Приступљено 22. 9. 2017.
Kershaw, K. A.; Millbank, J. W. (април 1970). „Isidia as Vegetative Propagules in Peltigera Aphthosa VAR. Variolosa (Massal.) Thoms”. The Lichenologist (на језику: енглески). 4 (3): 214—217. ISSN 1096-1135. S2CID 86138677. doi:10.1017/S0024282970000257. Приступљено 4. 1. 2022.
RRB, Leakey (31. 12. 2004). „Physiology of vegetative reproduction”. Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences. doi:10.1016/B0-12-145160-7/00108-3. Приступљено 4. 1. 2022.
Swingle, Charles F. (1940-07-01). „Regeneration and vegetative propagation”. The Botanical Review. 6 (7): 301—355. ISSN 0006-8101. S2CID 29297545. doi:10.1007/BF02919037.
Scarcelli, N.; Tostain, S.; Vigouroux, Y.; Agbangla, C.; Daïnou, O.; Pham, J.-L. (август 2006). „Farmers' use of wild relative and sexual reproduction in a vegetatively propagated crop. The case of yam in Benin”. Molecular Ecology. 15 (9): 2421—2431. ISSN 0962-1083. PMID 16842416. S2CID 19699365. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02958.x.
Birget, Philip L. G.; Repton, Charlotte; O'Donnell, Aidan J.; Schneider, Petra; Reece, Sarah E. (2017-08-16). „Phenotypic plasticity in reproductive effort: malaria parasites respond to resource availability”. Proc. R. Soc. B. 284 (1860): 20171229. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 5563815 . PMID 28768894. doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.1229.
Bonga, J. M. (1982). „Vegetative Propagation in Relation to Juvenility, Maturity, and Rejuvenation”. Tissue Culture in Forestry. Forestry Sciences. 5. Springer, Dordrecht. стр. 387—412. ISBN 9789048182725. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-3538-4_13.
McKey, Doyle; Elias, Marianne; Pujol, Benoît; Duputié, Anne (2010-04-01). „The evolutionary ecology of clonally propagated domesticated plants”. New Phytologist. 186 (2): 318—332. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 20202131. S2CID 11637652. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03210.x.
Beyl, Caula A.; Trigiano, Robert N. (2008). Plant Propagation Concepts and Laboratory Exercises (на језику: енглески). CRC Press. стр. 170. ISBN 9781420065091.

Spoljašnje veze

[1] Dobzhansky T. (1970): Genetics of the evolutionary process. Columbia, New York, ISBN 978-0-231-02837-0.

[2] Mayr E. (2000): The growth of biological thought – Diversity, evolution, and inheritance, 11th printing, first: Copyright © 1982. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cambridge (Mass.), London (England) , ISBN 978-0-674-36445-5 ; ISBN 978-0-674-36446-2.

[automatski_generisano1-3] а ^б Sofradžija A., Šoljan D., Hadžiselimović R. (1996): Biologija 1, Svjetlost, Sarajevo, ISBN 978-9958-10-686-6.

[4] Mayr E. (2000): The growth of biological thought – Diversity, evolution, and inheritance, 11th printing, first: Copyright 1982. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cambridge (Mass.), London (England) , ISBN 978-0-674-36445-5 ; ISBN 978-0-674-36446-2.

[5] Halliday T. R., Kraig A., Eds (1986): Reptiles & Amphibians. Torstar Books, ISBN 978-0-920269-81-7.

[ebrit-6] „Cell reproduction”. Encyclopædia Britannica.

[fap-7] Britannica Educational Publishing (2011). Fungi, Algae, and Protists. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-61530-463-9.

[aff-8] P.Puranik; Asha Bhate (2007). Animal Forms And Functions: Invertebrata. Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-791-6.

[margulis-9] Margulis, Lynn; McKhann, Heather I.; Olendzenski, Lorraine (2001). Illustrated glossary of protoctista: vocabulary of the algae, apicomplexa, ciliates, foraminifera, microspora, water molds, slime molds, and the other protoctists. Jones & Bartlett learn. ISBN 978-0-86720-081-2.

[tanada-10] Yoshinori Tanada; Harry K. Kaya (1993). Insect pathology. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 978-0-12-683255-6.

[11] Leeuwenhoek, Antoni Van (1703-12-31). „IV. Part of a letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, F. R. S. concerning green weeds growing in water, and some animalcula found about them.”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (на језику: енглески). 23 (283): 1304—1311. ISSN 0261-0523. S2CID 186209549. doi:10.1098/rstl.1702.0042.

[smyth-12] Smyth, James Desmond; Wakelin, Derek (1994). Introduction to animal parasitology (3 изд.). Cambridge University Press. стр. 101—102. ISBN 978-0-521-42811-8.

[13] „Asexual Reproduction”. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Приступљено 13. 8. 2010.

[14] „Celebrating Wildflowers - Fading Gold - How Aspens Grow”. Fs.fed.us. 11. 5. 2010. Архивирано из оригинала 23. 9. 2010. г.

[MehrotraAneja1990-15] R. S. Mehrotra; K. R. Aneja (1990). An Introduction to Mycology. New Age International. стр. 83 ff. ISBN 978-81-224-0089-2. Приступљено 4. 8. 2010.

[ColeSheath1990-16] Kathleen M. Cole; Robert G. Sheath (1990). Biology of the red algae. Cambridge University Press. стр. 469—. ISBN 978-0-521-34301-5. Приступљено 4. 8. 2010.

[ReekieBazzaz2005-17] Edward G. Reekie; Fakhri A. Bazzaz (28. 10. 2005). Reproductive allocation in plants. Academic Press. стр. 99—. ISBN 978-0-12-088386-8. Приступљено 4. 8. 2010.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

@@ Ред 15: / Ред 15: @@
 Ponekad se takođe koristi za opisivanje reprodukcije kod [[hermafrodit]]nih [[vrsta]], koje se mogu samostalno oploditi.
+== Tipovi aseksualne reprodukcije ==
-== Naizmjenična seksualna i aseksualna reprodukcija ==
+{{rut}}
+=== Fisija ===
+[[Prokaryote]]s ([[Archaea]] and [[Bacteria]]) reproduce asexually through [[Fission (biology)|binary fission]], in which the parent organism divides in two to produce two genetically identical daughter organisms. [[Eukaryote]]s (such as [[protist]]s and unicellular [[fungi]]) may reproduce in a functionally similar manner by [[mitosis]]; most of these are also capable of sexual reproduction.
+Multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in many [[protist]]s, e.g. [[sporozoa]]ns and [[algae]]. The [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] of the parent cell divides several times by [[mitosis]], producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates, creating multiple daughter cells.<ref name="ebrit">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/498542/reproduction/76146/Multiple-fission |title=Cell reproduction |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref name="fap">{{cite book |author=Britannica Educational Publishing |title=Fungi, Algae, and Protists |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-61530-463-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_U9MB4iUpDIC&q=multiple%20fission&pg=PA101}}</ref><ref name="aff">{{cite book |author=P.Puranik |author2=Asha Bhate |title=Animal Forms And Functions: Invertebrata |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-7625-791-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kdq6RyyVE0C&q=multiple%20fission&pg=PA87}}</ref>
+In [[apicomplexa]]ns, multiple fission, or [[schizogony]] appears either as [[protozoal merogony|merogony]], [[sporogony]] or [[gametogony]]. Merogony results in [[merozoite]]s, which are multiple daughter cells, that originate within the same cell membrane,<ref name="margulis">{{cite book |author1=Margulis, Lynn |author1-link=Lynn Margulis |author2=McKhann, Heather I. |author3=Olendzenski, Lorraine |title=Illustrated glossary of protoctista: vocabulary of the algae, apicomplexa, ciliates, foraminifera, microspora, water molds, slime molds, and the other protoctists |publisher=Jones & Bartlett learn |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y55Efu3baksC&q=Merogony%20multiple%20division&pg=PA72 |isbn=978-0-86720-081-2}}</ref><ref name="tanada">{{cite book |author1=Yoshinori Tanada |author2=Harry K. Kaya |title=Insect pathology |publisher=Gulf Professional Publishing |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-12-683255-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99YwOQnsgGUC&q=difference%20between%20merogony%20and%20schizogony&pg=PA415}}</ref> sporogony results in [[sporozoite]]s, and gametogony results in micro[[gamete]]s.
+=== Pupljenje ===
+[[File:S cerevisiae under DIC microscopy.jpg|thumb|The yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' reproducing by [[budding]]]]
+Some cells divide by [[budding]] (for example [[Saccharomyces cerevisiae|baker's yeast]]), resulting in a "mother" and a "daughter" cell that is initially smaller than the parent. Budding is also known on a multicellular level; an animal example is the [[Hydra (genus)|hydra]],<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1703-12-31|title=IV. Part of a letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, F. R. S. concerning green weeds growing in water, and some animalcula found about them.|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|language=en|volume=23|issue=283|pages=1304–1311|doi=10.1098/rstl.1702.0042|s2cid=186209549|issn=0261-0523|last1=Leeuwenhoek|first1=Antoni Van}}</ref> which reproduces by budding. The buds grow into fully matured individuals which eventually break away from the parent organism.
+Internal budding is a process of asexual reproduction, favoured by parasites such as ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]''. It involves an unusual process in which two (''endodyogeny'') or more (''endopolygeny'') daughter cells are produced inside a mother cell, which is then consumed by the offspring prior to their separation.<ref name=smyth>{{cite book |author1=Smyth, James Desmond |author2=Wakelin, Derek |title=Introduction to animal parasitology |year=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=101–102 |edition=3 |isbn=978-0-521-42811-8 }}</ref>
+=== Vegetativna propagacija ===
+[[File:Bryophyllum daigremontianum nahaufnahme1.jpg|thumb|Vegetative plantlets of mother-of-thousands, ''[[Bryophyllum daigremontianum|Bryophyllum daigremontianum (Kalanchoe daigremontiana)]]'']]
+[[Vegetative propagation]] is a type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores and thus without [[syngamy]] or [[meiosis]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss6/asexual.html |title=Asexual Reproduction |publisher=Ucmp.berkeley.edu |access-date=13 August 2010}}</ref> Examples of vegetative reproduction include the formation of miniaturized plants called plantlets on specialized leaves, for example in kalanchoe (''[[Bryophyllum daigremontianum]]'') and many produce new plants from [[rhizome]]s or [[stolon]] (for example in [[Garden strawberry|strawberry]]). Other plants reproduce by forming [[bulb]]s or [[tuber]]s (for example [[tulip]] bulbs and ''[[Dahlia]]'' tubers). Some plants produce [[adventitious]] shoots and may form a [[clonal colony]]. In these examples, all the individuals are clones, and the clonal population may cover a large area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/communities/aspen/grow.shtml |title=Celebrating Wildflowers - Fading Gold - How Aspens Grow |publisher=Fs.fed.us |date=11 May 2010 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100923073834/http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/communities/aspen/grow.shtml | archive-date= 23 September 2010  | url-status= live}}</ref>
+== Naizmenična seksualna i aseksualna reprodukcija ==
 {{see also|Biljna reprodukcija}}
@@ Ред 34: / Ред 56: @@
 == Literatura ==
-{{refbegin}}
+{{refbegin|30em}}
 * Graham, L., J. Graham, & L. Wilcox. 2003. ''Plant Biology''. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.: pp.&nbsp;258–259.
 * Raven, P.H., Evert, R.F., Eichhorn, S.E. 2005. ''Biology of Plants'', 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers, NY.
 * Avise, J. 2008. ''Clonality: The Genetics, Ecology, and Evolution of Sexual Abstinence in Vertebrate Animals''. Oxford University Press
 * Friedrich W. Stöcker, Gerhard Dietrich (Hrsg.): ''Brockhaus abc Biologie''. 7. Auflage. Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1986, {{ISBN|978-3-325-00071-9}}.
+* Gvaladze G.E. (1976). Forms of Apomixis in the genus ''Allium'' L. In: S.S. Khokhlov (Ed.): Apomixis and Breeding, Amarind Pub., New Delhi-Bombay-Calcutta-New York pp.&nbsp;160–165
+* Bhojwani S.S.& Bhatnagar S.P. (1988). The Embryology of angiosperms. Vikas Publishing house Pvt.Ltd. New Delhi.
+* Heslop-Harrison, J. (1972) "Sexuality in Angiosperms,"pp.&nbsp;133–289, In Steward,F.C. (ed.) Plant Physiology, Vol. 6C, Academic Press New York.
+* {{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/vegetative-reproduction|title=vegetative reproduction {{!}} horticulture|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=22 September 2017}}
+* {{Cite journal|last1=Kershaw|first1=K. A.|last2=Millbank|first2=J. W.|date=April 1970|title=Isidia as Vegetative Propagules in Peltigera Aphthosa VAR. Variolosa (Massal.) Thoms|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/lichenologist/article/abs/isidia-as-vegetative-propagules-in-peltigera-aphthosa-var-variolosa-massal-thoms/E834E80B4B671152D6BF6DB298B06BDA|journal=The Lichenologist|access-date=4 January 2022|language=en|volume=4|issue=3|pages=214–217|doi=10.1017/S0024282970000257|s2cid=86138677 |issn=1096-1135}}
+* {{Cite journal|last=RRB|first=Leakey|date=31 December 2004|title=Physiology of vegetative reproduction|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279420559|journal=Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences|access-date=4 January 2022|doi=10.1016/B0-12-145160-7/00108-3}}
+* {{Cite journal|last=Swingle|first=Charles F.|date=1940-07-01|title=Regeneration and vegetative propagation|journal=The Botanical Review|volume=6|issue=7|pages=301–355|doi=10.1007/BF02919037|s2cid=29297545|issn=0006-8101}}
+* {{Cite journal|last1=Scarcelli|first1=N.|last2=Tostain|first2=S.|last3=Vigouroux|first3=Y.|last4=Agbangla|first4=C.|last5=Daïnou|first5=O.|last6=Pham|first6=J.-L.|date=August 2006|title=Farmers' use of wild relative and sexual reproduction in a vegetatively propagated crop. The case of yam in Benin|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=15|issue=9|pages=2421–2431|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02958.x|issn=0962-1083|pmid=16842416|s2cid=19699365}}
+* {{Cite journal|last1=Birget|first1=Philip L. G.|last2=Repton|first2=Charlotte|last3=O'Donnell|first3=Aidan J.|last4=Schneider|first4=Petra|last5=Reece|first5=Sarah E.|date=2017-08-16|title=Phenotypic plasticity in reproductive effort: malaria parasites respond to resource availability|journal=Proc. R. Soc. B|volume=284|issue=1860|pages=20171229|doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1229|issn=0962-8452|pmid=28768894|pmc=5563815}}
+* {{Cite book|title=Tissue Culture in Forestry|volume = 5|last=Bonga|first=J. M.|date=1982|publisher=Springer, Dordrecht|isbn=9789048182725|series=Forestry Sciences|pages=387–412|doi=10.1007/978-94-017-3538-4_13|chapter = Vegetative Propagation in Relation to Juvenility, Maturity, and Rejuvenation}}
+* {{Cite journal|last1=McKey|first1=Doyle|last2=Elias|first2=Marianne|last3=Pujol|first3=Benoît|last4=Duputié|first4=Anne|date=2010-04-01|title=The evolutionary ecology of clonally propagated domesticated plants|journal=New Phytologist|volume=186|issue=2|pages=318–332|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03210.x|pmid=20202131|s2cid=11637652 |issn=1469-8137}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Beyl |first1=Caula A. |last2=Trigiano |first2=Robert N. |title=Plant Propagation Concepts and Laboratory Exercises |date=2008 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781420065091 |page=170 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zl_MBQAAQBAJ |language=en}}
 {{refend}}
@@ Ред 46: / Ред 81: @@
 * [http://www.tulane.edu/~wiser/protozoology/notes/intes.html Intestinal Protozoa]
+{{normativna kontrola-lat}}
-{{нормативна контрола-лат}}
 [[Категорија:Бесполна репродукција]]

Normativna kontrola
Državne	Francuska BnF podaci Nemačka Izrael Sjedinjene Države
Ostale	NARA