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{{short description|Подред сисара}}{{rut}}
{{Taxobox
{{Taxobox
| name = '''Мали љиљци'''
| name = '''Мали љиљци'''
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[[Noctilionoidea]]}-
[[Noctilionoidea]]}-
}}
}}

'''Мали љиљци''' (-{Microchiroptera}-) су [[Ред (биологија)|подред]] реда [[Слепи мишеви|слепих мишева]], који су добили назив по свом малом [[раст]]у. Величине су од 4 до 16 -{cm}-.<ref>-{Whitaker, J.O. Jr, Dannelly, H.K. & Prentice, D.A. (2004) Chitinase in insectivorous bats. Journal of. Mammalogy, 85, 15–18.}-</ref>
'''Мали љиљци''' (-{Microchiroptera}-) су [[Ред (биологија)|подред]] реда [[Слепи мишеви|слепих мишева]], који су добили назив по свом малом [[раст]]у. Bats have long been differentiated into [[Megachiroptera]] (megabats) and Microchiroptera, based on their size, the use of [[Animal echolocation|echolocation]] by the Microchiroptera and other features; molecular evidence suggests a somewhat different subdivision, as the microbats have been shown to be a [[paraphyletic]] group.<ref name="microbat paraphyly" /> Величине су од 4 до 16 -{cm}-.<ref>-{Whitaker, J.O. Jr, Dannelly, H.K. & Prentice, D.A. (2004) Chitinase in insectivorous bats. Journal of. Mammalogy, 85, 15–18.}-</ref>

== Карактеристике ==
Microbats are {{convert|4|to(-)|16|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref>Whitaker, J.O. Jr, Dannelly, H.K. & Prentice, D.A. (2004) Chitinase in insectivorous bats. Journal of. Mammalogy, 85, 15–18.</ref> Most microbats feed on insects, but some of the larger species hunt birds, lizards, frogs, smaller bats or even [[fish]]. Only three species of microbat feed on the blood of large mammals or birds ("[[vampire bat]]s"); these bats live in South and Central America.

Although most "Leaf-nose" microbats are fruit and nectar-eating, the name “leaf-nosed” isn't a designation meant to indicate the preferred diet among said variety.<ref>Walker's Bats of the World, Ronald M. Nowak (1994)</ref> Three species follow the bloom of columnar cacti in northwest Mexico and the Southwest United States northward in the northern spring and then the blooming agaves southward in the northern fall (autumn).<ref>A Natural History of the Sonoran Desert, Edited by Steven Phillips and Patricia Comus, University of California Press, Berkeley p. 464</ref> Other leaf-nosed bats, such as ''[[Vampyrum spectrum]]'' of South America, hunt a variety of prey such as lizards and birds. The horseshoe bats of Europe, as well as California leaf-nosed bats, have a very intricate leaf-nose for echolocation, and feed primarily on insects.

=== Dentition ===
[[File:Dilambdodont teeth pattern (microbat).png|thumb|alt=The ventral view of microbat teeth|Ventral view of a free-tailed microbat (Genus ''Tadarida'') skull displaying a dilambdodont teeth pattern. Specimen from the Pacific Lutheran University Natural History collection.]]

[[File:Microbat canine teeth.png|thumb|alt=The frontal view of microbat teeth|Frontal view of a free-tailed microbat (Genus ''Tadarida'') skull displaying the canine teeth. Specimen from the Pacific Lutheran University Natural History collection.]]

The form and function of microbat teeth differ as a result of the various diets these bats can have. Teeth are primarily designed to break down food; therefore, the shape of the teeth correlate to specific feeding behaviors.<ref>Evans, A. R. (2005). Connecting morphology, function and tooth wear in microchiropterans. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 85(1), 81-96. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2005.00474.x</ref> In comparison to megabats which feed only on fruit and nectar, microbats illustrate a range of diets and have been classified as [[Insectivore|insectivores]], [[Carnivore|carnivores]], [[Hematophagy|sanguinivores]], [[Frugivore|frugivores]], and [[Nectarivore|nectarivores]].<ref name=":3">Freeman, Patricia W., "Form, Function, and Evolution in Skulls and Teeth of Bats" (1998). Papers in Natural Resources. 9.</ref> Differences seen between the size and function of the canines and molars among microbats in these groups vary as a result of this.

The diverse diets of microbats reflect having dentition, or [https://animaldiversity.org/collections/mammal_anatomy/cheek_teeth_structure/ cheek teeth], that display a morphology derived from dilambdodont teeth, which are characterized by a W-shaped ectoloph, or stylar shelf.<ref>Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2018. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed at https://animaldiversity.org.</ref> A W-shaped dilambdodont upper molar includes a metacone and paracone, which are located at the bottom of the “W”; while the rest of the “W” is formed by crests that run from the metacone and paracone to the cusps of the stylar self.

Microbats display differences between the size and shape of their canines and molars, in addition to having distinctive variations among their skull features that contribute to their ability to feed effectively. Frugivorous microbats have small stylar shelf areas, short molariform rows, and wide palates and faces. In addition to having wide faces, frugivorous microbats have short skulls, which place the teeth closer to the fulcrum of the jaw lever, allowing an increase in jaw strength.<ref>Freeman, P. W. (1988). Frugivorous and animalivorous bats (Microchiroptera): dental and cranial adaptations. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 33(3), 249-272. Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/33/3/249/2646853
Jump up ^ </ref> Frugivorous microbats also possess a different pattern on their molars compared to carnivorous, insectivorous, nectarivorous, and sanguinivorous microbats.<ref name=":3" /> In contrast, insectivorous microbats are characterized by having larger, but fewer teeth, long canines, and shortened third upper molars; while carnivorous microbats have large upper molars. Generally, microbats that are insectivores, carnivores, and frugivores have large teeth and small palates; however, the opposite is true for microbats that are nectarivores. Though differences exist between the palate and teeth sizes of microbats, the proportion of the sizes of these two structures are maintained among microbats of various sizes.<ref name=":3" />

== Ехолокација ==
{{main|Animal echolocation}}
[[Animal echolocation|Echolocation]] is the process where an animal produces a sound of certain wavelength, and then listens to and compares the reflected echoes to the original sound emitted. Bats use echolocation to form images of their surrounding environment and the organisms that inhabit it by eliciting [[Ultrasound|ultrasonic waves]] via their [[larynx]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Davies|first1=Kalina TJ|last2=Maryanto|first2=Ibnu|last3=Rossiter|first3=Stephen J.|date=2013-01-01|title=Evolutionary origins of ultrasonic hearing and laryngeal echolocation in bats inferred from morphological analyses of the inner ear|journal=Frontiers in Zoology|volume=10|issue=1|pages=2|doi=10.1186/1742-9994-10-2|issn=1742-9994|pmc=3598973|pmid=23360746}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Reichard|first1=Jonathan D.|last2=Fellows|first2=Spenser R.|last3=Frank|first3=Alexander J.|last4=Kunz|first4=Thomas H.|date=2010-11-01|title=Thermoregulation during Flight: Body Temperature and Sensible Heat Transfer in Free-Ranging Brazilian Free-Tailed Bats (Tadarida brasiliensis)|journal=Physiological and Biochemical Zoology|volume=83|issue=6|pages=885–897|doi=10.1086/657253|pmid=21034204|s2cid=1028970|issn=1522-2152|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/65d9c04bc34cf57eee9b1e1af66d882827f003d4}}</ref> The difference between the ultrasonic waves produced by the bat and what the bat hears provides the bat with information about its environment. Echolocation aids the bat in not only detecting prey, but also in orientation during flight.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience|last1=Berke|first1=Gerald S.|last2=Long|first2=Jennifer L.|date=2010-01-01|publisher=Elsevier|editor-last=Brudzynski|editor-first=Stefan M.|series=Handbook of Mammalian VocalizationAn Integrative Neuroscience Approach|volume=19|pages=419–426|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-374593-4.00038-3|chapter=Functions of the larynx and production of sounds|isbn=9780123745934}}</ref>

=== Production of ultrasonic waves ===
Most microbats generate ultrasound with their larynx and emit the sound through their nose or mouth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hedenström|first1=Anders|last2=Johansson|first2=L. Christoffer|date=2015-03-01|title=Bat flight: aerodynamics, kinematics and flight morphology|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|language=en|volume=218|issue=5|pages=653–663|doi=10.1242/jeb.031203|issn=0022-0949|pmid=25740899|doi-access=free}}</ref> Sound productions are generated from the [[vocal folds]] in mammals due to the elastic membranes that compose these folds. Vocalization requires these elastic membranes because they act as a source to transform airflow into acoustic pressure waves. Energy is supplied to the elastic membranes from the lungs, and results in the production of sound. The larynx houses the [[Vocal folds|vocal cords]] and forms the passageway for the expiratory air that will produce sound.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holbrook|first1=K A|last2=Odland|first2=G F|date=1978-05-01|title=A collagen and elastic network in the wing of the bat.|journal=Journal of Anatomy|volume=126|issue=Pt 1|pages=21–36|issn=0021-8782|pmc=1235709|pmid=649500}}</ref> Microbat {{Audio|Ultrasonic_bat_calls.ogg|calls}} range in frequency from 14,000 to over 100,000 [[hertz]], well beyond the range of the human ear (typical human hearing range is considered to be from 20 to 20,000&nbsp;Hz). The emitted vocalizations form a broad beam of sound used to probe the environment, as well as communicate with other bats.

=== Laryngeally echolocating microbats ===
[[File:BIOL352-WikiPic-2.jpg|thumb|463x463px|alt=The skull of a microbat|Ventral view of a Florida Freetail bat (''Tadarida cyanocephala)'' skull, highlighting both the stylohyal and tympanic bones. Specimen from the Pacific Lutheran University Natural History collection.]]
Laryngeal echolocation is the dominant form of echolocation in microbats, however, it is not the only way in which microbats can produce ultrasonic waves. Excluding non-echolocating and laryngeally echolocating microbats, other species of microbats and megabats have been shown to produce [[Ultrasound|ultrasonic waves]] by clapping their wings, clicking their tongues, or using their nose.<ref name=":0" /> Laryngeally echolocating bats, in general, produce ultrasonic waves with their larynx that is specialized to produce sounds of short [[wavelength]]. The [[larynx]] is located at the [[Cranium|cranial]] end of the [[trachea]] and is surrounded by [[cricothyroid muscle]]s and [[thyroid cartilage]]. For reference, in [[human]]s, this is the area where the [[Adam's apple]] is located. Phonation of ultrasonic waves is produced through the vibrations of the vocal membranes in the expiratory air. The intensity that these vocal folds vibrate at varies with activity and between bat species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Simmons|first1=Nancy B.|last2=Seymour|first2=Kevin L.|last3=Habersetzer|first3=Jörg|last4=Gunnell|first4=Gregg F.|date=2010-08-19|title=Inferring echolocation in ancient bats|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=466|issue=7309|pages=E8|doi=10.1038/nature09219|pmid=20724993|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=2010Natur.466E...8S|doi-access=free}}</ref> A characteristic of laryngeally echolocating microbats that distinguishes them from other echolocating microbats is the articulation of their [[stylohyal bone]] with their [[Tympanic part of the temporal bone|tympanic bone]]. The stylohyal bones are part of the [[hyoid apparatus]] that help support the throat and larynx. The tympanic bone forms the floor of the [[middle ear]]. In addition to the connection between the stylohyal bone and the tympanic bone as being an indicator of laryngeally echolocating microbats, another definitive marker is the presence of a flattened and expanded stylohyal bone at the cranial end.<ref name=":1" /> Microbats that laryngeally echolocate must be able to distinguish between the differences of the pulse that they produce and the returning echo that follows by being able to process and understand the [[Ultrasound|ultrasonic waves]] at a [[neuron]]al level, in order to accurately obtain information about their surrounding environment and orientation in it.<ref name=":0" /> The connection between the stylohyal bone and the tympanic bone enables the bat to neurally register the outgoing and incoming ultrasonic waves produced by the [[larynx]].<ref name=":2" /> Furthermore, the stylohyal bones connect the larynx to the tympanic bones via a [[cartilaginous]] or [[Fibrous joint|fibrous]] connection (depending on the species of bat). Mechanically the importance of this connection is that it supports the larynx by anchoring it to the surrounding [[Cricothyroid muscle|cricothryroid muscles]], as well as draws it closer to the [[nasal cavity]] during [[phonation]]. The stylohyal bones are often reduced in many other mammals, however, they are more prominent in laryngeally echolocating bats and are part of the mammalian hyoid apparatus. The hyoid apparatus functions in breathing, swallowing, and phonation in microbats as well as other mammals. An important feature of the bony connection in laryngeally echolocating microbats is the extended articulation of the ventral portion of the tympanic bones and the proximal end of the stylohyal bone that bends around it to make this connection.<ref name=":0" />


== Изглед ==
== Изглед ==
Ред 31: Ред 61:
Најчешће насељавају [[Тропска (прашумска) влажна клима|тропске]] и [[Суптропска клима|суптропске]] области.<ref name="скрипта"/>
Најчешће насељавају [[Тропска (прашумска) влажна клима|тропске]] и [[Суптропска клима|суптропске]] области.<ref name="скрипта"/>


== Извори ==
== Референце ==
{{извори}}
{{извори|refs=
<ref name="microbat paraphyly">{{cite journal|last1=Teeling|first1=E. C.|last2=Madsen|first2=O.|last3=Van de Bussche|first3=R. A.|last4=de Jong|first4=W. W.|last5=Stanhope|first5=M. J.|last6=Springer|first6=M. S.|title=Microbat paraphyly and the convergent evolution of a key innovation in Old World rhinolophoid microbats|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=2002|volume=99|issue=3|pages=1431–1436|doi=10.1073/Pnas.022477199|pmid=11805285|pmc=122208|bibcode=2002PNAS...99.1431T}}</ref>

}}

== Литература ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Anderson JA | date = 1995 | title = An Introduction to Neural Networks | publisher = MIT Press }}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Au WE | date = 1993 | title = The Sonar of Dolphins | location = New York | publisher = Springer-Verlag }} Provides a variety of findings on signal strength, directionality, discrimination, biology and more.
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Pack AA, Herman LM | title = Sensory integration in the bottlenosed dolphin: immediate recognition of complex shapes across the senses of echolocation and vision | journal = The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America | volume = 98 | issue = 2 Pt 1 | pages = 722–33 | date = August 1995 | pmid = 7642811 | doi = 10.1121/1.413566 | bibcode = 1995ASAJ...98..722P }} Shows evidence for the sensory integration of shape information between echolocation and vision, and presents the hypothesis of the existence of the mental representation of an "echoic image".
* {{citation | vauthors = Hopkins C | date = 2007 | title = Echolocation II | work = BioNB 424 Neuroethology Powerpoint presentation. | publisher = Cornell University | location = Ithaca NY }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Moss CF, Sinha SR | title = Neurobiology of echolocation in bats | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 751–8 | date = December 2003 | pmid = 14662378 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2003.10.016 | s2cid = 8541198 }}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Reynolds JE, Rommel SA | date = 1999 | title = Biology of Marine Mammals | publisher = Smithsonian Institution Press }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Suga N, O'Neill WE | s2cid = 11840108 | title = Neural axis representing target range in the auditory cortex of the mustache bat | journal = Science | volume = 206 | issue = 4416 | pages = 351–3 | date = October 1979 | pmid = 482944 | doi = 10.1126/science.482944 | bibcode = 1979Sci...206..351S }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Surlykke A, Kalko EK | title = Echolocating bats cry out loud to detect their prey | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = e2036 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18446226 | pmc = 2323577 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0002036 | bibcode = 2008PLoSO...3.2036S | doi-access = free }}
{{refend}}


== Спољашње везе==
== Спољашње везе==
{{Категорија на Остави|Microchiroptera}}
{{Категорија на Остави|Microchiroptera}}
{{Викиврсте|Microchiroptera}}
{{Викиврсте|Microchiroptera}}
* [http://www.batworld.org Bat World Sanctuary]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051103015511/http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/tierphys/Kontakt/mitarbeiter_seiten/dietz.htm Illustrated Identification key to the bats of Europe] (''see "Recent publications"'')
* [http://www.batcon.org Bat Conservation International]


{{Taxonbar|from=Q971343}}
{{нормативна контрола}}
{{нормативна контрола}}


Верзија на датум 21. мај 2022. у 18:52

Мали љиљци
Corynorhinus townsendii
Научна класификација
Царство:
Animalia
Тип:
Chordata
Класа:
Mammalia
Ред:
Chiroptera
Подред:
Microchiroptera

Dobson, 1875
Натпородице

Emballonuroidea
Rhinopomatoidea
Rhinolophoidea
Vespertilionoidea
Molossoidea
Nataloidea
Noctilionoidea

Мали љиљци (Microchiroptera) су подред реда слепих мишева, који су добили назив по свом малом расту. Bats have long been differentiated into Megachiroptera (megabats) and Microchiroptera, based on their size, the use of echolocation by the Microchiroptera and other features; molecular evidence suggests a somewhat different subdivision, as the microbats have been shown to be a paraphyletic group.[1] Величине су од 4 до 16 cm.[2]

Карактеристике

Microbats are 4 to 16 cm (1,6—6,3 in) long.[3] Most microbats feed on insects, but some of the larger species hunt birds, lizards, frogs, smaller bats or even fish. Only three species of microbat feed on the blood of large mammals or birds ("vampire bats"); these bats live in South and Central America.

Although most "Leaf-nose" microbats are fruit and nectar-eating, the name “leaf-nosed” isn't a designation meant to indicate the preferred diet among said variety.[4] Three species follow the bloom of columnar cacti in northwest Mexico and the Southwest United States northward in the northern spring and then the blooming agaves southward in the northern fall (autumn).[5] Other leaf-nosed bats, such as Vampyrum spectrum of South America, hunt a variety of prey such as lizards and birds. The horseshoe bats of Europe, as well as California leaf-nosed bats, have a very intricate leaf-nose for echolocation, and feed primarily on insects.

Dentition

The ventral view of microbat teeth
Ventral view of a free-tailed microbat (Genus Tadarida) skull displaying a dilambdodont teeth pattern. Specimen from the Pacific Lutheran University Natural History collection.
The frontal view of microbat teeth
Frontal view of a free-tailed microbat (Genus Tadarida) skull displaying the canine teeth. Specimen from the Pacific Lutheran University Natural History collection.

The form and function of microbat teeth differ as a result of the various diets these bats can have. Teeth are primarily designed to break down food; therefore, the shape of the teeth correlate to specific feeding behaviors.[6] In comparison to megabats which feed only on fruit and nectar, microbats illustrate a range of diets and have been classified as insectivores, carnivores, sanguinivores, frugivores, and nectarivores.[7] Differences seen between the size and function of the canines and molars among microbats in these groups vary as a result of this.

The diverse diets of microbats reflect having dentition, or cheek teeth, that display a morphology derived from dilambdodont teeth, which are characterized by a W-shaped ectoloph, or stylar shelf.[8] A W-shaped dilambdodont upper molar includes a metacone and paracone, which are located at the bottom of the “W”; while the rest of the “W” is formed by crests that run from the metacone and paracone to the cusps of the stylar self.

Microbats display differences between the size and shape of their canines and molars, in addition to having distinctive variations among their skull features that contribute to their ability to feed effectively. Frugivorous microbats have small stylar shelf areas, short molariform rows, and wide palates and faces. In addition to having wide faces, frugivorous microbats have short skulls, which place the teeth closer to the fulcrum of the jaw lever, allowing an increase in jaw strength.[9] Frugivorous microbats also possess a different pattern on their molars compared to carnivorous, insectivorous, nectarivorous, and sanguinivorous microbats.[7] In contrast, insectivorous microbats are characterized by having larger, but fewer teeth, long canines, and shortened third upper molars; while carnivorous microbats have large upper molars. Generally, microbats that are insectivores, carnivores, and frugivores have large teeth and small palates; however, the opposite is true for microbats that are nectarivores. Though differences exist between the palate and teeth sizes of microbats, the proportion of the sizes of these two structures are maintained among microbats of various sizes.[7]

Ехолокација

Главни чланак: Animal echolocation

Echolocation is the process where an animal produces a sound of certain wavelength, and then listens to and compares the reflected echoes to the original sound emitted. Bats use echolocation to form images of their surrounding environment and the organisms that inhabit it by eliciting ultrasonic waves via their larynx.[10][11] The difference between the ultrasonic waves produced by the bat and what the bat hears provides the bat with information about its environment. Echolocation aids the bat in not only detecting prey, but also in orientation during flight.[12]

Production of ultrasonic waves

Most microbats generate ultrasound with their larynx and emit the sound through their nose or mouth.[13] Sound productions are generated from the vocal folds in mammals due to the elastic membranes that compose these folds. Vocalization requires these elastic membranes because they act as a source to transform airflow into acoustic pressure waves. Energy is supplied to the elastic membranes from the lungs, and results in the production of sound. The larynx houses the vocal cords and forms the passageway for the expiratory air that will produce sound.[14] Microbat О овој звучној датотеци calls (помоћ·инфо) range in frequency from 14,000 to over 100,000 hertz, well beyond the range of the human ear (typical human hearing range is considered to be from 20 to 20,000 Hz). The emitted vocalizations form a broad beam of sound used to probe the environment, as well as communicate with other bats.

Laryngeally echolocating microbats

The skull of a microbat
Ventral view of a Florida Freetail bat (Tadarida cyanocephala) skull, highlighting both the stylohyal and tympanic bones. Specimen from the Pacific Lutheran University Natural History collection.

Laryngeal echolocation is the dominant form of echolocation in microbats, however, it is not the only way in which microbats can produce ultrasonic waves. Excluding non-echolocating and laryngeally echolocating microbats, other species of microbats and megabats have been shown to produce ultrasonic waves by clapping their wings, clicking their tongues, or using their nose.[10] Laryngeally echolocating bats, in general, produce ultrasonic waves with their larynx that is specialized to produce sounds of short wavelength. The larynx is located at the cranial end of the trachea and is surrounded by cricothyroid muscles and thyroid cartilage. For reference, in humans, this is the area where the Adam's apple is located. Phonation of ultrasonic waves is produced through the vibrations of the vocal membranes in the expiratory air. The intensity that these vocal folds vibrate at varies with activity and between bat species.[15] A characteristic of laryngeally echolocating microbats that distinguishes them from other echolocating microbats is the articulation of their stylohyal bone with their tympanic bone. The stylohyal bones are part of the hyoid apparatus that help support the throat and larynx. The tympanic bone forms the floor of the middle ear. In addition to the connection between the stylohyal bone and the tympanic bone as being an indicator of laryngeally echolocating microbats, another definitive marker is the presence of a flattened and expanded stylohyal bone at the cranial end.[11] Microbats that laryngeally echolocate must be able to distinguish between the differences of the pulse that they produce and the returning echo that follows by being able to process and understand the ultrasonic waves at a neuronal level, in order to accurately obtain information about their surrounding environment and orientation in it.[10] The connection between the stylohyal bone and the tympanic bone enables the bat to neurally register the outgoing and incoming ultrasonic waves produced by the larynx.[12] Furthermore, the stylohyal bones connect the larynx to the tympanic bones via a cartilaginous or fibrous connection (depending on the species of bat). Mechanically the importance of this connection is that it supports the larynx by anchoring it to the surrounding cricothryroid muscles, as well as draws it closer to the nasal cavity during phonation. The stylohyal bones are often reduced in many other mammals, however, they are more prominent in laryngeally echolocating bats and are part of the mammalian hyoid apparatus. The hyoid apparatus functions in breathing, swallowing, and phonation in microbats as well as other mammals. An important feature of the bony connection in laryngeally echolocating microbats is the extended articulation of the ventral portion of the tympanic bones and the proximal end of the stylohyal bone that bends around it to make this connection.[10]

Изглед

Имају кратку њушку, мале очи и дуге уши.[16] За разлику од великих љиљака који се више ослањају на свој добар вид, мали љиљци се оријентишу пре свега захваљујући ехолокацији.[17] (О овој звучној датотеци преузми (помоћ·инфо))

Исхрана

Имају оштре грбице на кутњацима. Већина врста су инсектоједне, мањи број њих се храни плодовима, а неке сисају крв топлокрвним животињама.[16]

Станиште

Најчешће насељавају тропске и суптропске области.[16]

Референце

  1. ^ Teeling, E. C.; Madsen, O.; Van de Bussche, R. A.; de Jong, W. W.; Stanhope, M. J.; Springer, M. S. (2002). „Microbat paraphyly and the convergent evolution of a key innovation in Old World rhinolophoid microbats”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (3): 1431—1436. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.1431T. PMC 122208 Слободан приступ. PMID 11805285. doi:10.1073/Pnas.022477199. 
  2. ^ Whitaker, J.O. Jr, Dannelly, H.K. & Prentice, D.A. (2004) Chitinase in insectivorous bats. Journal of. Mammalogy, 85, 15–18.
  3. ^ Whitaker, J.O. Jr, Dannelly, H.K. & Prentice, D.A. (2004) Chitinase in insectivorous bats. Journal of. Mammalogy, 85, 15–18.
  4. ^ Walker's Bats of the World, Ronald M. Nowak (1994)
  5. ^ A Natural History of the Sonoran Desert, Edited by Steven Phillips and Patricia Comus, University of California Press, Berkeley p. 464
  6. ^ Evans, A. R. (2005). Connecting morphology, function and tooth wear in microchiropterans. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 85(1), 81-96. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2005.00474.x
  7. ^ а б в Freeman, Patricia W., "Form, Function, and Evolution in Skulls and Teeth of Bats" (1998). Papers in Natural Resources. 9.
  8. ^ Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2018. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed at https://animaldiversity.org.
  9. ^ Freeman, P. W. (1988). Frugivorous and animalivorous bats (Microchiroptera): dental and cranial adaptations. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 33(3), 249-272. Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/33/3/249/2646853 Jump up ^
  10. ^ а б в г Davies, Kalina TJ; Maryanto, Ibnu; Rossiter, Stephen J. (2013-01-01). „Evolutionary origins of ultrasonic hearing and laryngeal echolocation in bats inferred from morphological analyses of the inner ear”. Frontiers in Zoology. 10 (1): 2. ISSN 1742-9994. PMC 3598973 Слободан приступ. PMID 23360746. doi:10.1186/1742-9994-10-2. 
  11. ^ а б Reichard, Jonathan D.; Fellows, Spenser R.; Frank, Alexander J.; Kunz, Thomas H. (2010-11-01). „Thermoregulation during Flight: Body Temperature and Sensible Heat Transfer in Free-Ranging Brazilian Free-Tailed Bats (Tadarida brasiliensis)”. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology. 83 (6): 885—897. ISSN 1522-2152. PMID 21034204. S2CID 1028970. doi:10.1086/657253. 
  12. ^ а б Berke, Gerald S.; Long, Jennifer L. (2010-01-01). „Functions of the larynx and production of sounds”. Ур.: Brudzynski, Stefan M. Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience. Handbook of Mammalian VocalizationAn Integrative Neuroscience Approach. 19. Elsevier. стр. 419—426. ISBN 9780123745934. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-374593-4.00038-3. 
  13. ^ Hedenström, Anders; Johansson, L. Christoffer (2015-03-01). „Bat flight: aerodynamics, kinematics and flight morphology”. Journal of Experimental Biology (на језику: енглески). 218 (5): 653—663. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 25740899. doi:10.1242/jeb.031203 Слободан приступ. 
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  15. ^ Simmons, Nancy B.; Seymour, Kevin L.; Habersetzer, Jörg; Gunnell, Gregg F. (2010-08-19). „Inferring echolocation in ancient bats”. Nature (на језику: енглески). 466 (7309): E8. Bibcode:2010Natur.466E...8S. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 20724993. doi:10.1038/nature09219 Слободан приступ. 
  16. ^ а б в Калезић, М. 2000. године. Хордати (ауторизована скрипта). Биолошки факултет: Београд.
  17. ^ Маркон Е, Монђини М. 2000. Све животиње света. ИКП Евро, Београд.

Литература

  • Anderson JA (1995). An Introduction to Neural Networks. MIT Press. 
  • Au WE (1993). The Sonar of Dolphins. New York: Springer-Verlag.  Provides a variety of findings on signal strength, directionality, discrimination, biology and more.
  • Pack AA, Herman LM (август 1995). „Sensory integration in the bottlenosed dolphin: immediate recognition of complex shapes across the senses of echolocation and vision”. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 98 (2 Pt 1): 722—33. Bibcode:1995ASAJ...98..722P. PMID 7642811. doi:10.1121/1.413566.  Shows evidence for the sensory integration of shape information between echolocation and vision, and presents the hypothesis of the existence of the mental representation of an "echoic image".
  • Hopkins C (2007), „Echolocation II”, BioNB 424 Neuroethology Powerpoint presentation., Ithaca NY: Cornell University 
  • Moss CF, Sinha SR (децембар 2003). „Neurobiology of echolocation in bats”. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 13 (6): 751—8. PMID 14662378. S2CID 8541198. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2003.10.016. 
  • Reynolds JE, Rommel SA (1999). Biology of Marine Mammals. Smithsonian Institution Press. 
  • Suga N, O'Neill WE (октобар 1979). „Neural axis representing target range in the auditory cortex of the mustache bat”. Science. 206 (4416): 351—3. Bibcode:1979Sci...206..351S. PMID 482944. S2CID 11840108. doi:10.1126/science.482944. 
  • Surlykke A, Kalko EK (април 2008). „Echolocating bats cry out loud to detect their prey”. PLOS ONE. 3 (4): e2036. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2036S. PMC 2323577 Слободан приступ. PMID 18446226. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002036 Слободан приступ. 

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