Hram

Hram ili bogomolja je tip objekta koji se koristi za religijske i duhovne aktivnosti kao što su molitve ili žrtvovanje te za slične religijske procese. Hram je generalni arhitektonski izraz za molitvene objekte.

Istorija evropskih hramova

Starogrčki hram

U religijama drevne Evrope, hram je prvenstveno smatran kućom boga, a ne mestom za okupljanje vernika. Nastanak hrama se povezuje sa religijama koje imaju antropomorfna božanstva, pre svega sa starogrčkom. Građevine koje su bile namenjene kultu su postojale i u kritsko-mikenskoj epohi, ali nije sigurno da su imale funkciju hrama. Najstarije grčke građevine tog tipa datiraju iz 8. veka p. n. e. Bile su od drveta, a imale su statuu (u odaji koja se zvala naos ili cela) boga kome je hram posvećen i žrtvenik naspram ulaza. Najčešće su pravougaone građevine, usmerene od istoka ka zapadu, ali su poznati i drugi oblici, kao i veličine. Temelji (stereobat) su ukopavani u zemlju. Često se ispred naosa nalazi predvorje, pronaos, a iza manja prostorija za čuvanje zavetnih darova (opistodom) ili koja služi za proricanje (aditon). Manji hramovi imaju stubove (koji naležu na tzv. stilobat) na fasadi (prostilos) ili na svojim užim stranama (amfiprostilos), dok veliki, kameni hramovi od 6. veka p. n. e. u Grčkoj, ali i nekim drugim mestima su okruženi stubovima (peripteros), koji su nekada i udvojeni (dipteros). Postojali su, ali ređe i hramovi kružne osnove (toloi), koji su ponekad takođe bili okruženi stubovima. Hram je građen od tesanika koji su spojeni metalnim klinovima, tako da su najniže postavljeni tesanici dvostruko veći od ostalih. Krov je dvoslivan, sa zabatima na užim stranama. Oko hrama je osvećen prostor, koji se naziva temenos i koji je ograđen zidom. Rimski hramovi su građeni po uzoru na grčke, ali i etrurske. Podizani su na visokom podijumu, za razliku od grčkih, koji su podizani na niskom i stepenastom (krepis) i vrlo su retko bili okruženi stubovima. Etrurski hramovi nisu dovoljno poznati jer su bili građeni od drveta, ali utvrđeno je da su podizani na podijumu, imali pronaos i često i tri cele. Da bi se drvo održalo, koristila se terakota. Krov je bio isti kao kod grčkih hramova.

Egipatski hramovi

Glavni članak: Egipatski hram

Hram u Luksoru, Egipat

Drevni egipatski hramovi bili su zamišljeni kao mesta za božanstava da borave na Zemlji. Termin koji su Egipćani najčešće koristili za opisivanje objekta hrama, ḥwt-nṯr, znači „palata (ili kućište) boga”.

Božje prisustvo u hramu povezivalo je ljudski i božanski domen i omogućilo ljudima da komuniciraju s bogom putem rituala. Ovi su obredi, verovalo se, podržavali boga i omogućavali mu da i dalje igra svoju pravu ulogu u prirodi. Oni su stoga bili, ključni deo održavanja Maata, idealnog poretka prirode i ljudskog društva po egipatskom verovanju. Održavanje Maata bila je celokupna svrha egipatske religije, a samim tim i svrha hrama.

Drevni egipatski hramovi takođe su bili od ekonomskog značaja za egipatsko društvo. Hramovi su skladištili i redistribuirali žitarice i posedovali su velike delove obradivih površina nacije (po nekim procenama čak 33% u periodu Novog kraljevstva). Pored toga, mnogi od ovih egipatskih hramova koristili su Trojni podni plan kako bi privukli posetioce u središnju prostoriju.

Vidi još

• Grčki hram
• Rimski hram
• Jerusalimski hram

Literatura

• Arnold, Dieter (1991). Building in Egypt: Pharaonic Stone Masonry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511374-7. 
• Arnold, Dieter (1997). „Royal Cult Complexes of the Old and Middle Kingdoms”. Ur.: Shafer, Byron E. Temples of Ancient Egypt. Cornell University Press. str. 31–85. ISBN 978-0-8014-3399-3. 
• Arnold, Dieter (1999). Temples of the Last Pharaohs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512633-4. 
• Arnold, Dieter (2001). „Architecture”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 1. Oxford University Press. str. 113—125. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Arnold, Dieter (2003) [German edition 1994]. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. Translated by Sabine H. Gardiner and Helen Strudwick. Edited by Nigel and Helen Strudwick. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11488-0. 
• Assmann, Jan (2001) [German edition 1984]. The Search for God in Ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-3786-1. 
• Bagnall, Roger S. (1993). Egypt in Late Antiquity. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-06986-9. 
• Baines, John (1997). „Temples as Symbols, Guarantors, and Participants in Egyptian Civilization”. Ur.: Quirke, Stephen. The Temple in Ancient Egypt: New Discoveries and Recent Research. British Museum Press. str. 216—241. ISBN 978-0-7141-0993-0. 
• Bell, Lanny (1997). „The New Kingdom 'Divine' Temple: The Example of Luxor”. Ur.: Shafer, Byron E. Temples of Ancient Egypt. Cornell University Press. str. 127–184. ISBN 978-0-8014-3399-3. 
• Bleeker, C. J. (1967). Egyptian Festivals: Enactments of Religious Renewal. Brill. 
• Cruz-Uribe, Eugene (2010). „The Death of Demotic Redux: Pilgrimage, Nubia, and the Preservation of Egyptian Culture”. Ur.: Knuf, Hermann; Leitz, Christian; von Recklinghausen, Daniel. Honi soit qui mal y pense: Studien zum pharaonischen, griechisch-römischen und spätantiken Ägypten zu Ehren von Heinz-Josef Thissen. Peeters. str. 499—506. ISBN 978-90-429-2323-2. 
• Davies, Sue; Smith, H. S. (1997). „Sacred Animal Temples at Saqqara”. Ur.: Quirke, Stephen. The Temple in Ancient Egypt: New Discoveries and Recent Research. British Museum Press. str. 112—131. ISBN 978-0-7141-0993-0. 
• Dijkstra, Jitse (2011). „The Fate of the Temples in Late Antique Egypt”. Ur.: Lavan, Luke; Mulryan, Michael. The Archaeology of Late Antique 'Paganism'. Brill. str. 389–436. ISBN 978-0-7546-3603-8. 
• Doxey, Denise (2001). „Priesthood”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3. Oxford University Press. str. 68—73. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Dunand, Françoise; Zivie-Coche, Christiane (2004) [French edition 1991]. Gods and Men in Egypt: 3000 BCE to 395 CE. Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8853-5. 
• Eaton, Katherine (2013). Ancient Egyptian Temple Ritual: Performance, Pattern, and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-83298-4. 
• Englund, Gertie (2001). „Offerings: An Overview”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 2. Oxford University Press. str. 564—569. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Egypt State Information Service. „Tourism: Introduction”. Pristupljeno 6. 1. 2011. 
• Fagan, Brian (2004). The Rape of the Nile: Tomb Robbers, Tourists, and Archaeologists in Egypt, Revised Edition. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4061-6. 
• Finnestad, Ragnhild Bjerre (1997). „Temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods: Ancient Traditions in New Contexts”. Ur.: Shafer, Byron E. Temples of Ancient Egypt. Cornell University Press. str. 185–237. ISBN 978-0-8014-3399-3. 
• Frankfurter, David (1998). Religion in Roman Egypt: Assimilation and Resistance. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07054-4. 
• Goedicke, Hans (1978). „Cult-Temple and 'State' During the Old Kingdom in Egypt”. Ur.: Lipiński, Edward. State and Temple Economy in the Ancient Near East. 1. Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. str. 115—131. ISBN 978-90-70192-03-7. 
• Gundlach, Rolf (2001). „Temples”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3. Oxford University Press. str. 363—379. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Hahn, Johannes (2008). „The Conversion of the Cult Statues: The Destruction of the Serapeum 392 A.D. and the Transformation of Alexandria into the 'Christ-Loving' City”. Ur.: Hahn, Johannes; Emmel, Stephen; Gotter, Ulrich. From Temple to Church: Destruction and Renewal of Local Cultic Topography in Late Antiquity. Brill. str. 335–365. ISBN 978-90-04-13141-5. 
• Hahn, Johannes; Emmel, Stephen; Gotter, Ulrich (2008). „'From Temple to Church': Analysing a Late Antique Phenomenon of Transformation”. Ur.: Hahn, Johannes; Emmel, Stephen; Gotter, Ulrich. From Temple to Church: Destruction and Renewal of Local Cultic Topography in Late Antiquity. Brill. str. 1–22. ISBN 978-90-04-13141-5. 
• Haeny, Gerhard (1997). „New Kingdom 'Mortuary Temples' and 'Mansions of Millions of Years'”. Ur.: Shafer, Byron E. Temples of Ancient Egypt. Cornell University Press. str. 86–126. ISBN 978-0-8014-3399-3. 
• Haring, B. J. J. (1997). Divine Households: Administrative and Economic Aspects of the New Kingdom Royal Memorial Temples in Western Thebes. Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. ISBN 90-6258-212-5. 
• Hölzl, Regina (2001). „Stelae”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3. Oxford University Press. str. 319—324. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Janssen, Jac J. (1978). „The Role of the Temple in the Egyptian Economy During the New Kingdom”. Ur.: Lipiński, Edward. State and Temple Economy in the Ancient Near East. 2. Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. str. 505—515. ISBN 978-90-70192-03-7. 
• Johnson, Janet H. (1986). „The Role of the Egyptian Priesthood in Ptolemaic Egypt”. Ur.: Lesko, Leonard H. Egyptological Studies in Honour of Richard A. Parker. Brown. str. 70–84. ISBN 978-0-87451-321-9. 
• Katary, Sally (2011). Wendrich, Willeke, ur. „Taxation (until the End of the Third Intermediate Period)”. UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, UC Los Angeles. ISBN 978-0615214030. Pristupljeno 6. 1. 2015. 
• Kemp, Barry (1973). „Temple and Town in Ancient Egypt”. Ur.: Ucko, Peter J.; Tringham, Ruth; Dimbleby, G. W. Man, Settlement and Urbanism. Duckworth. str. 657—678. ISBN 978-0-7156-0589-9. 
• Kemp, Barry (2006). Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation, Second Edition. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-01281-2. 
• Kozloff, Arielle P. (2001). „Sculpture: Divine Sculpture”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3. Oxford University Press. str. 243—246. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Kruchten, Jean-Marie (2001). „Oracles”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 2. Oxford University Press. str. 609—612. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Lavan, Luke (2011). „The End of the Temples: Towards a New Narrative?”. Ur.: Lavan, Luke; Mulryan, Michael. The Archaeology of Late Antique 'Paganism'. Brill. str. xv—lxv. ISBN 978-0-7546-3603-8. 
• Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05084-2. 
• Lesko, Barbara S. (2001). „Cults: Private Cults”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 1. Oxford University Press. str. 336—339. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Meeks, Dimitri; Favard-Meeks, Christine (1996) [French edition 1993]. Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods. Translated by G. M. Goshgarian. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8248-9. 
• Monson, Andrew (2012). From the Ptolemies to the Romans: Political and Economic Change in Egypt. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01441-1. 
• Naerebout, Frederick G. (2007). „The Temple at Ras el-Soda. Is It an Isis Temple? Is It Greek, Roman, Egyptian, or Neither? And So What?”. Ur.: Bricault, Laurent; Versluys, Miguel John; Meyboom, Paul G. P. Nile into Tiber: Egypt in the Roman World. Proceedings of the IIIrd International Conference of Isis studies, Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, May 11–14, 2005. Brill. str. 506–554. ISBN 978-90-04-15420-9. 
• Quirke, Stephen (1997a). „Editorial Foreword”. Ur.: Quirke, Stephen. The Temple in Ancient Egypt: New Discoveries and Recent Research. British Museum Press. str. viii—x. ISBN 978-0-7141-0993-0. 
• Quirke, Stephen (1997b). „Gods in the Temple of the King: Anubis at Lahun”. Ur.: Quirke, Stephen. The Temple in Ancient Egypt: New Discoveries and Recent Research. British Museum Press. str. 24—48. ISBN 978-0-7141-0993-0. 
• Quirke, Stephen (2001). The Cult of Ra: Sun Worship in Ancient Egypt. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05107-8. 
• Ray, John D. (2001). „Cults: Animal Cults”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 1. Oxford University Press. str. 345—348. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Reymond, E. A. E. (1969). The Mythical Origin of the Egyptian Temple. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-0311-0. 
• Ritner, Robert Kriech (1993). The Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. ISBN 978-0-918986-75-7. 
• Robins, Gay (1986). Egyptian Painting and Relief. Shire Publications. ISBN 978-0-85263-789-0. 
• Sauneron, Serge (2000) [French edition 1988]. The Priests of Ancient Egypt, New Edition. Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8654-8. 
• Shafer, Byron E. (1997). „Temples, Priests, and Rituals: An Overview”. Ur.: Shafer, Byron E. Temples of Ancient Egypt. Cornell University Press. str. 1–30. ISBN 978-0-8014-3399-3. 
• Snape, Steven (1996). Egyptian Temples. Shire Publications. ISBN 978-0-7478-0327-0. 
• Spalinger, Anthony J. (oktobar 1998). „The Limitations of Formal Ancient Egyptian Religion”. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 57 (4): 241—260. JSTOR 545450. doi:10.1086/468651. 
• Spalinger, Anthony (2001). „Festivals”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 1. Oxford University Press. str. 521—525. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Spencer, Patricia (1984). The Egyptian Temple: A Lexicographical Study. Kegan Paul International. ISBN 978-0-7103-0065-2. 
• Stadler, Martin (2008). Wendrich, Willeke, ur. „Taxation (until the End of the Third Intermediate Period)”. UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, UC Los Angeles. ISBN 978-0615214030. Pristupljeno 6. 1. 2015. 
• Teeter, Emily (2001). „Cults: Divine Cults”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 1. Oxford University Press. str. 340—345. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Teeter, Emily (2011). Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-61300-2. 
• Thompson, Stephen E. (2001). „Cults: An Overview”. Ur.: Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 1. Oxford University Press. str. 326—332. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. 
• Uphill, Eric (1973). „The Concept of the Egyptian Palace as a 'Ruling Machine'”. Ur.: Ucko, Peter J.; Tringham, Ruth; Dimbleby, G. W. Man, Settlement and Urbanism. Duckworth. str. 721—734. ISBN 978-0-7156-0589-9. 
• Verner, Miroslav (2013) [Czech edition 2010]. Temple of the World: Sanctuaries, Cults, and Mysteries of Ancient Egypt. Translated by Anna Bryson-Gustová. The American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-416-563-4. 
• Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05100-9. 
• Arnold, Dieter (1992). Die Tempel Ägyptens: Götterwohnungen, Kültstatten, Baudenkmäler (na jeziku: German). Bechtermünz Vlg. ISBN 3-86047-215-1. CS1 održavanje: Neprepoznat jezik (veza)
• Oakes, Lorna (2003). Temples and Sacred Centres of Ancient Egypt: A Comprehensive Guide to the Religious Sites of a Fascinating Civilisation. Southwater. ISBN 1-84215-757-4. 
• Vörös, Győző (2007). Egyptian Temple Architecture: 100 Years of Hungarian Excavations in Egypt, 1907–2007. Translated by David Robert Evans. The American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-963-662-084-4. 

Spoljašnje veze

• online – distinct for the religious and anatomical terms
• Comparison between Egyptian and Greek temples
• Ancient Egyptian architecture: temples at Digital Egypt for Universities