Зоља

Уколико сте тражили оружје, погледајте чланак М-80 „Зоља“.

Wasp Темпорални опсег: Јура - садашњост
Друштвена зоља, Vespula germanica
Научна класификација
Домен:	Eukaryota
Царство:	Animalia
Тип:	Arthropoda
Класа:	Insecta
Ред:	Hymenoptera
(нерангирано):	Unicalcarida
Подред:	Apocrita
Укључене групе
Stephanoidea Ceraphronoidea Evanioidea Ichneumonoidea Proctotrupomorpha Trigonaloidea Aculeata (делом)
Кладистички укључене, мада традиционално искључене из таксона
клада Anthophila (пчеле) фамилија Formicidae (мрави)

Зоља је назив за неколико група опнокрилаца, при чему се најчешће зољама називају осе (родови Vespula и Polistes). У научној класификацији зоље су врсте из подреда Symphyta, тзв. биљне зоље. Поједине врсте зоља су значајне штеточине у шумарству и пољопровреди.

Таксономија и филогенија

Wasps are paraphyletic, consisting of the clade Apocrita without ants and bees, which are not usually considered to be wasps. The Hymenoptera also contain the somewhat wasplike Symphyta, the sawflies. The familiar common wasps and yellowjackets belong to one family, the Vespidae.

Парафилетско груписање

The wasps are a cosmopolitan paraphyletic grouping of hundreds of thousands of species, consisting of the narrow-waisted clade Apocrita without the ants and bees. The Hymenoptera also contain the somewhat wasplike but unwaisted Symphyta, the sawflies.

The term wasp is sometimes used more narrowly for members of the Vespidae, which includes several eusocial wasp lineages, such as yellowjackets (the genera Vespula and Dolichovespula), hornets (genus Vespa), and members of the subfamily Polistinae.

Фосили

Male Electrostephanus petiolatus fossil from the Middle Eocene, preserved in Baltic amber

Hymenoptera in the form of Symphyta (Xyelidae) first appeared in the fossil record in the Lower Triassic. Apocrita, wasps in the broad sense, appeared in the Jurassic, and had diversified into many of the extant superfamilies by the Cretaceous; they appear to have evolved from the Symphyta. Fig wasps with modern anatomical features first appeared in the Lower Cretaceous of the Crato Formation in Brazil, some 65 million years before the first fig trees.

The Vespidae include the extinct genus Palaeovespa, seven species of which are known from the Eocene rocks of the Florissant fossil beds of Colorado and from fossilised Baltic amber in Europe. Also found in Baltic amber are crown wasps of the genus Electrostephanus.

Разноликост

Wasps are a diverse group, estimated at well over a hundred thousand described species around the world, and a great many more as yet undescribed. For example, almost every one of some 1000 species of tropical fig trees has its own specific fig wasp (Chalcidoidea) that has co-evolved with it and pollinates it.

Many wasp species are parasitoids; the females deposit eggs on or in a host arthropod on which the larvae then feed. Some larvae start off as parasitoids, but convert at a later stage to consuming the plant tissues that their host is feeding on. In other species, the eggs are laid directly into plant tissues and form galls, which protect the developing larvae from predators, but not necessarily from other parasitic wasps. In some species, the larvae are predatory themselves; the wasp eggs are deposited in clusters of eggs laid by other insects, and these are then consumed by the developing wasp larvae.

The largest social wasp is the Asian giant hornet, at up to 5 cm (2,0 in) in length. The various tarantula hawk wasps are of a similar size and can overpower a spider many times its own weight, and move it to its burrow, with a sting that is excruciatingly painful to humans. The solitary giant scoliid, Megascolia procer, with a wingspan of 11.5 cm, has subspecies in Sumatra and Java; it is a parasitoid of the Atlas beetle Chalcosoma atlas. The female giant ichneumon wasp Megarhyssa macrurus is 125 cm (49 in) long including its very long but slender ovipositor which is used for boring into wood and inserting eggs. The smallest wasps are solitary parasitoid wasps in the family Mymaridae, including the world's smallest known insect, Dicopomorpha echmepterygis (139 micrometres long) and Kikiki huna with a body length of only 158 micrometres, the smallest known flying insect.

There are estimated to be 100,000 species of ichneumonoid wasps in the families Braconidae and Ichneumonidae. These are almost exclusively parasitoids, mostly utilising other insects as hosts. Another family, the Pompilidae, is a specialist parasitoid of spiders. Some wasps are even parasitoids of parasitoids; the eggs of Euceros are laid beside lepidopteran larvae and the wasp larvae feed temporarily on their haemolymph, but if a parasitoid emerges from the host, the hyperparasites continue their life cycle inside the parasitoid. Parasitoids maintain their extreme diversity through narrow specialism. In Peru, 18 wasp species were found living on 14 fly species in only two species of Gurania climbing squash.

• 
  Megascolia procer, a giant solitary species from Java in the Scoliidae. This specimen's length is 77mm and its wingspan is 115mm.
• 
  Megarhyssa macrurus, a parasitoid. The body of a female is 50mm long, with a c. 100mm ovipositor
• 
  Tarantula hawk wasp dragging an orange-kneed tarantula to her burrow; it has the most painful sting of any wasp.

Значајне зоље

• лисне зоље, род Acantholyda
• обична борова зоља, Diprion pini
• риђа борова зоља, Neodiprion sertifer
• крушкова лисна зоља, Neurotoma flaviventris
• букова лисна зоља, Neurotoma nemoralis
• белоножна трешњева зоља, Tenthredo albipes

Литература

• Ross, Kenneth G. (1991). The Social Biology of Wasps. Cornell Press. ISBN 978-0-801-49906-7. 
• Brower, L. P., ур. (1988). Mimicry and the evolutionary process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-07608-3.  (a supplement of volume 131 of the journal American Naturalist dedicated to E. B. Ford).
• Carpenter, G. D. Hale; Ford, E. B. (1933). Mimicry. London: Methuen. 
• Cott, H. B. (1940) Adaptive Coloration in Animals. Methuen and Co, London, ISBN 0-416-30050-2
• Dafni, A. (1984). „Mimicry and Deception in Pollination”. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 15: 259—278. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.15.110184.001355. 
• Evans, M. A. (1965). „Mimicry and the Darwinian Heritage”. Journal of the History of Ideas. 26 (2): 211—220. JSTOR 2708228. doi:10.2307/2708228. 
• Owen, D. (1980) Camouflage and Mimicry. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-217683-8.
• Pasteur, Georges (1982). „A classificatory review of mimicry systems”. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 13: 169—199. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001125. 
• Stevens, M. (2016). Cheats and deceits: how animals and plants exploit and mislead. Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-870789-9
• Wiens, D. (1978). „Mimicry in Plants”. Interspecific variation of calls in clownfishes: Degree of similarity in closely related species. Evolutionary Biology. 11. стр. 365—403. ISBN 978-1-4615-6958-9. PMC 3282713 . PMID 22182416. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-6956-5_6. 
• Vane-Wright, R. I. (1976). „A unified classification of mimetic resemblances”. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 8: 25—56. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1976.tb00240.x. 
• Wickler, W. (1968) Mimicry in Plants and Animals (translated from the German), McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 0-07-070100-8.
• Hoff, M. K. (2003) Mimicry and Camouflage. Creative Education. Mankato, Minnesota, USA, Great Britain. ISBN 1-58341-237-9.
• Edmunds, Malcolm (1974). Defence in Animals. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-44132-3. 
• Poulton, Edward Bagnall (1890). The Colours of Animals, their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects. London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Trübner. 
• Ruxton, Graeme D.; Sherratt, T. N.; Speed, M. P. (2004). Avoiding Attack: The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852859-3. 

Спољашње взе

• Differences between Bees and Wasps
• Natural History Museum – Wasps: If you can't love them, at least admire them
• N.I.H. Medline Encyclopedia – Insect bites and stings
• Waspweb
• DermNet arthropods/bites