Korintski savez
Korintski savez, ponekad navođen i kao Helenski savez (from Greek Ἑλληνικός Hellenikos, "pertaining to Greece and Greeks"[1][2][3]), bio je savez starogrčkih polisa koje je tokom zime 338/337. p. n. e. osnovao makedonski kralj Filip II.[4] Članovi saveza su imali pravo da zadrže vlastite ustave, ali su, s druge strane, bili dužni da spreče svaki čin agresije, odnosno da daju određeni broj vojnika u zajedničku stajaću vojsku, srazmjerno svojoj veličini. Savez je imao zajedničku skupštinu - sinedrion - koji se sastajao u Korintu. Filip II je odmah po osnivanju od strane sinedrija imenovan komandantom vojske.
Razlog zbog koga je Filip osnovao Savez bilo je nastojanje da sebi osigura saveznike pred predstojeći pohod na Persija,[5][6][7] s kojim je u doba kralja Artakserksa III došao u sukob zbog persijske pomoći gradu Perintu na trakijskoj obali. Filip je kao razlog za povod naveo odmazdu za pustošenja koje su Persijanci počinili po Grčkoj za vrijeme grčko-persijskih ratova 480. p. n. e.
S druge strane, Filipu je Savez takođe služio i kao sredstvo održavanja makedonske hegemonije nad Grčkom, uspostavljene nakon što su u bici kod Heroneje poraženi njegovi glavni suparnici Atina i Teba. Savez je tako Filipu dozvolio da drži makedonske garnizone u Korintu, Tebi, Pidni i Ambrakiji. Jedini polis koji nije pristao da uđe u Savez te tako očuvao nezavisnost bila je Sparta. Nakon Filipove smrti se dio članica Saveza pobunio, ali je tu pobunu surovo ugušio Aleksandar Veliki, te je Korintski savez sudjelovao u njegovom pohodu na Aziju.
Isokrat je prvobitno podsticao kralja Filipa (u Isokratovoj besedi Filipu), 346. pne, da ujedini Grčku protiv Persijanaca.[8][9] Nakon bitke kod Heroneje, Ligu je kontrolisao kralj Filip.
Naziv 'Korintska liga' izmislili su moderni istoričari jer se prvi savet Lige održao u Korintu, a grčku reč sinedrion je bolje prevesti kao kongres ili konferencija nego liga. Ova organizacija je bila prvi put u istoriji da su se grčki gradovi-države (sa značajnim izuzetkom Sparte, koja će se pridružiti tek kasnije pod Aleksandrovim uslovima) ujedinili pod jednim političkim entitetom.[10]
Organizacija
[uredi | uredi izvor]Ligom su upravljali Hegemon[11][12][13] (strategos autokrator[14][15] u vojnom kontekstu),[16] Sinedrion[17] (veće) i Dikastaj (sudije). Dekreti lige su izdati u Korintu, Atini, Delfima, Olimpiji i Pidni.[18] Liga je održavala vojsku koju su plaćivale države članice u približnoj srazmeri sa njihovom veličinom, dok je Filip uspostavio helenske garnizone (kojima su komandovali fourarči, ili komandanti garnizona) u Korintu, Tebi, Pidni[19] i Ambrakiji.
Ugovor o zajedničkom miru
[uredi | uredi izvor](Fragmentarni natpis pronađen u Atini)[20][21]
Tekst
[uredi | uredi izvor]| „ | [․․․․․․․․․21․․․․․․․․․․ Ποσ]ειδῶ ․․5․․
․․․․․․․․․․22․․․․․․․․․․ς ἐμμεν[ῶ ․․․․] ․․․․․․․․․․22․․․․․․․․․․νον[τ]ας τ․․․․ [․․․․․․․․18․․․․․․․․ οὐδ]ὲ ὅπλα ἐ[π]οί[σω ἐ]- [πὶ πημονῆι ἐπ’ οὐδένα τῶν] ἐμμενόντ[ω]ν ἐν τ- [οῖς ὅρκοις οὔτε κατὰ γῆν] οὔτε κατὰ [θ]άλασ- [σαν· οὐδὲ πόλιν οὐδὲ φρο]ύριον καταλήψομ- [αι οὔτε λιμένα ἐπὶ πολέ]μωι οὐθενὸς τῶν τ- [ῆς εἰρήνης κοινωνούντ]ων τέχνηι οὐδεμι- [ᾶι οὔτε μηχανῆι· οὐδὲ τ]ὴν βασιλείαν [τ]ὴν Φ- [ιλίππου καὶ τῶν ἐκγόν]ων καταλύσω ὀδὲ τὰ- [ς πολιτείας τὰς οὔσας] παρ’ ἑκάστοις ὅτε τ- [οὺς ὅρκους τοὺς περὶ τ]ῆς εἰρήνης ὤμνυον· [οὐδὲ ποιήσω οὐδὲν ἐνα]ντίον ταῖσδε ταῖς [σπονδαῖς οὔτ’ ἐγὼ οὔτ’ ἄλ]λωι ἐπιτρέψω εἰς [δύναμιν, ἀλλ’ ἐάν τις ποε̑ι τι] παράσπονδ[ον] πε- [ρὶ τὰς συνθήκας, βοηθήσω] καθότι ἂν παραγ- [γέλλωσιν οἱ ἀεὶ δεόμενοι] καὶ πολεμήσω τῶ- [ι τὴν κοινὴν εἰρήνην παρ]αβαίνοντι καθότι [ἂν ἦι συντεταγμένον ἐμαυ]τῶι καὶ ὁ ἡγε[μὼ]- [ν κελεύηι ․․․․․12․․․․․ κα]ταλείψω τε․․ — — — — — — — — — — — — — :𐅃 [— — — — — — — — — — : Θεσ]σαλῶν :Δ [— — — — — — — — — — — ῶ]ν :ΙΙ [— — — — — — — — — Ἐλειμ]ιωτῶν :Ι [— — — — Σαμοθράικων καὶ] Θασίων :ΙΙ — — — — — — — — — ων :ΙΙ: Ἀμβρακιωτ[ῶν] [— — — — — — — ἀ]πὸ Θράικης καὶ [— — — — — :] Φωκέων :ΙΙΙ: Λοκρῶν :ΙΙΙ [— — — — Οἰτ]αίων καὶ Μαλιέων καὶ [Αἰνιάνων :ΙΙΙ: — καὶ Ἀγ]ραίων καὶ Δολόπων :𐅃 [— — — — — — : Πε]ρραιβῶν :ΙΙ [— — — — — : Ζακύνθο]υ καὶ Κεφαληνίας :ΙΙΙ |
” |
Prevod
[uredi | uredi izvor]| „ | Zakletva. Kunem se Zevsom, Gejom, Heliosom, Posejdonom i svim bogovima i boginjama. Držaću se zajedničkog mira i neću prekršiti sporazum sa Filipom, niti ću se naoružavati na kopnu ili na moru, šteteći bilo kome od onih koji se pridržavaju zakletve. Niti ću uzeti bilo koji grad, ili tvrđavu, niti luku zanatom ili umišljajem, sa namerom rata protiv učesnika rata. Niti ću zbaciti kraljevstvo Filipa ili njegovih potomaka, niti ustave koji postoje u svakoj državi, kada su položili zakletvu na mir. Niti ću učiniti bilo šta suprotno ovim sporazumima, niti ću dozvoliti bilo kome drugom koliko god je to moguće. Ali ako neko počini bilo kakvo kršenje ugovora, ja ću ići u podršku na poziv onih kojima je potrebno i boriću se protiv prekršilaca zajedničkog mira, kako odluči (savet) i poziva hegemon i neću napustiti--------
Tesalijani--Elimioti--Samotračani i Tasisani---Ambracioti---iz Trakije i---Fokiđani, Lokri Etajci i Malijci i Injni -- i Etolijci i Dolopi --- Perebi --- od Zakintosa i od Kefalonijci. |
” |
Liga tokom Aleksandrijskih pohoda
[uredi | uredi izvor]Odluku o uništenju Tebe kao prekršioca gore navedene zakletve doneo je savet Korintskog saveza velikom većinom.[22] Osim kršenja zakletve, savet je ocenio da su Tebanci na taj način konačno kažnjeni za izdaju Grka tokom Persijskih ratova.[23][24] Ligu pominje Arijan (I, 16, 7), posle bitke kod Granika (334. pne). Aleksandar je poslao 300 panopija u hram Atinine palate u Atini, sa sledećim natpisom.
| „ | Aleksandar, sin Filipov, i Helene, osim Lakedemonaca, od varvara koji naseljavaju Aziju[25] | ” |
Takođe, Diodor Sikulski (Βίβλος ΙΖ’ 48.[6]) pominje odluku Sabora iz 333. pne, posle bitke kod IsE, da pošalje ambasadore Aleksandru koji će doneti Izuzetnost Grčke (zlatni venac).[26] Tokom 331. pne, nakon bitke kod Megalopolisa, Sparta je zatražila od Aleksandra uslove, na koje je on pristao pod uslovom da se Lakedemonci sada pridruže Korintskom savezu.[27] Tokom azijskog pohoda, Antipatar je postavljen za zamenika hegemona Lige[28] dok je Aleksandar lično preporučio Atinjanima da skrenu pažnju na te predmete; u slučaju da mu se nešto desi, Atina bi preuzela vlast u Grčkoj.[29]
Posledice
[uredi | uredi izvor]Liga je raspuštena posle Lamijskog rata (322. pne).[30] Tokom 302. pne Antigon I Monoftalm i njegov sin Demetrija Poliorketa pokušali su da ožive federaciju protiv Kasandra. Antigon III Doson (makedonski kralj od 229. pne do 221. pne) je takođe oživeo Ligu protiv Sparte tokom 224. pne.[31]
Vidi još
[uredi | uredi izvor]Reference
[uredi | uredi izvor]- ^ Ἑλληνικός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, Book 16, 64.[3]: «Φίλιππος ἀπὸ τούτων τῶν χρόνων ἀεὶ μᾶλλον αὐξόμενος τὸ τελευταῖον διὰ τὴν εἰς τὸ θεῖον εὐσέβειαν ἡγεμὼν ἀπεδείχθη τῆς Ἑλλάδος πάσης καὶ μεγίστην βασιλείαν τῶν κατὰ τὴν Εὐρώπην περιεποιήσατο»
- ^ The reason Arrian wrote about Alexander: «ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἔστιν ὅστις ἄλλος εἷς ἀνὴρ τοσαῦτα ἢ τηλικαῦτα ἔργα κατὰ πλῆθος ἢ μέγεθος ἐν Ἕλλησιν ἢ βαρβάροις ἀπεδείξατο» Arrian, Alexander Anabasis [1.12.4.]
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, Book 16, 89.[3] «διόπερ ἐν Κορίνθῳ τοῦ κοινοῦ συνεδρίου συναχθέντος διαλεχθεὶς περὶ τοῦ πρὸς Πέρσας πολέμου καὶ μεγάλας ἐλπίδας ὑποθεὶς προετρέψατο τοὺς συνέδρους εἰς πόλεμον. τέλος δὲ τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἑλομένων αὐτὸν στρατηγὸν αὐτοκράτορα τῆς Ἑλλάδος μεγάλας παρασκευὰς ἐποιεῖτο πρὸς τὴν ἐπὶ τοὺς Πέρσας στρατείαν...καὶ τὰ μὲν περὶ Φίλιππον ἐν τούτοις ἦν»
- ^ Arrian, Alexander Anabasis, [4.11.7.] «καὶ ἐγὼ τῆς Ἑλλάδος μεμνῆσθαί σε ἀξιῶ, ὦ Ἀλέξανδρε, ἧς ἕνεκα ὁ πᾶς στόλος σοι ἐγένετο, προσθεῖναι τὴν Ἀσίαν τῇ Ἑλλάδι»
- ^ Kinzl, Konrad H. (2010). A Companion to the Classical Greek World. Wiley-Blackwell. str. 553. ISBN 978-1444334128. „He [Philip] also recognized the power of pan-Hellenic sentiment when arranging Greek affairs after his victory at Chaironeia: a pan-Hellenic expedition against Persia ostensibly was one of the main goals of the League of Corinth.”
- ^ Davis Hanson, Victor (2012). Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome. Princeton University Press. str. 119. ISBN 978-0691156361. „Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor.”
- ^ Philip [16]: «μέλλω γάρ σοι συμβουλεύειν προστῆναι τῆς τε τῶν Ἑλλήνων ὁμονοίας καὶ τῆς ἐπὶ τοὺς βαρβάρους στρατείας: ἔστι δὲ τὸ μὲν πείθειν πρὸς τοὺς Ἕλληνας συμφέρον, τὸ δὲ βιάζεσθαι πρὸς τοὺς βαρβάρους χρήσιμον. ἡ μὲν οὖν περιβολὴ παντὸς τοῦ λόγου τοιαύτη τίς ἐστιν» [1]
- ^ Harle, Vilho (1998). Ideas of Social Order in the Ancient World. Praeger. str. 24. ISBN 031330582X. „The idea of the city-state was first challenged by the ideal of pan-Hellenic unity supported by some writers and orators, among which the Athenian Isocrates became a leading proponent with his Panegyrics of 380 suggesting a Greek holy war against Persia. However, only the rise of Macedonia made the realization of pan-Hellenic unity possible.”
- ^ Pohlenz, Max (1966). Freedom in Greek Life and Thought: The History of an Ideal. Springer. str. 20. ISBN 978-90-277-0009-4.
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, Book 16, 91.[2]: «ἐπὶ δὲ τούτων Φίλιππος ὁ βασιλεὺς ἡγεμὼν ὑπὸ τῶν Ἑλλήνων καθεσταμένος καὶ τὸν πρὸς Πέρσας πόλεμον ἐνστησάμενος Ἄτταλον μὲν καὶ Παρμενίωνα προαπέστειλεν εἰς τὴν Ἀσίαν, μέρος τῆς δυνάμεως δοὺς καὶ προστάξας ἐλευθεροῦν τὰς Ἑλληνίδας πόλεις»
- ^ Plutarch, Alexander [14.1] «Εἰς δὲ τὸν Ἰσθμὸν τῶν Ἑλλήνων συλλεγέντων καὶ ψηφισαμένων ἐπὶ Πέρσας μετ᾽ Ἀλεξάνδρου στρατεύειν, ἡγεμὼν ἀνηγορεύθη»
- ^ Alexander’s letter to Darius after the battle of Issus: «Οι υμέτεροι πρόγονοι ελθόντες εις Μακεδονίαν και εις την άλλην Ελλάδα κακώς εποίησαν ημάς. Εγώ δε των Ελλήνων ηγεμών κατασταθείς και τιμωρήσασθαι βουλόμενος Πέρσας διέβην ες Ασίαν, υπαρξάντων υμών» Arrian, Alexander Anabasis [2.14.4.]
- ^ Diodorus, Book 17.3[9]: «τοῦ δ᾽ Ἀλεξάνδρου παραγγείλαντος εἰς Κόρινθον ἀπαντᾶν τάς τε πρεσβείας καὶ τοὺς συνέδρους, ἐπειδὴ συνῆλθον οἱ συνεδρεύειν εἰωθότες, διαλεχθεὶς ὁ βασιλεὺς καὶ λόγοις ἐπιεικέσι χρησάμενος ἔπεισε τοὺς Ἕλληνας ψηφίσασθαι στρατηγὸν αὐτοκράτορα τῆς Ἑλλάδος εἶναι τὸν Ἀλέξανδρον καὶ συστρατεύειν ἐπὶ τοὺς Πέρσας ὑπὲρ ὧν εἰς τοὺς Ἕλληνας ἐξήμαρτον»
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Book 16, Τάδε ἔνεστιν ἐν τῇ ἑκκαιδεκάτῃ τῶν Διοδώρου ἱστορικῶν βίβλων: «ὡς οἱ Ἕλληνες αὐτοκράτορα στρατηγὸν εἵλοντο Φίλιππον. ὡς Φίλιππος μέλλων διαβαίνειν εἰς τὴν Ἀσίαν ἀνῃρέθη»
- ^ Alexander the Great: A New History By Alice Heckel, Waldemar Heckel, Lawrence A. Tritle Page 103 ISBN 1-4051-3082-2
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Book 16, 89.[3]: «διόπερ ἐν Κορίνθῳ τοῦ κοινοῦ συνεδρίου συναχθέντος διαλεχθεὶς περὶ τοῦ πρὸς Πέρσας πολέμου καὶ μεγάλας ἐλπίδας ὑποθεὶς προετρέψατο τοὺς συνέδρους εἰς πόλεμον»
- ^ A History of Macedonia: Volume II: 550-336 B.C. Page 639 ISBN 0-19-814814-3
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Book 16.8.[3]: «τόπων εὐφυῶς πολλὰ συνεβάλετο τῷ Φιλίππῳ πρὸς αὔξησιν. εὐθὺ γὰρ τὴν μὲν Πύδναν ἐχειρώσατο»
- ^ IG II² 236
- ^ Rhodes, P.J. and Robin Osborne. Greek Historical Inscriptions, 404-323 BC, p. 373 ISBN 0-19-921649-5
- ^ Arrian 1.9.9-10, Diodorus Siculus 17.14.1, Justin 11.3.6
- ^ Arrian [1.9.7] «ὡς τῆς τε ἐν τῷ Μηδικῷ πολέμῳ προδοσίας τῶν Ἑλλήνων διὰ μακροῦ ταύτην δίκην ἐκτίσαντας Θηβαίους»
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, Book 17, 14.[2][3][4]: «τοὺς δὲ συνέδρους τῶν Ἑλλήνων συναγαγὼν ἐπέτρεψε τῷ κοινῷ συνεδρίῳ πῶς χρηστέον τῇ πόλει τῶν Θηβαίων. [2] προτεθείσης οὖν βουλῆς τῶν ἀλλοτρίως διακειμένων τοῖς Θηβαίοις τινὲς ἐπεχείρουν συμβουλεύειν ἀπαραιτήτοις τιμωρίαις δεῖν περιβαλεῖν αὐτούς, ἀπεδείκνυον δ᾽ αὐτοὺς τὰ τῶν βαρβάρων πεφρονηκότας κατὰ τῶν Ἑλλήνων: καὶ γὰρ ἐπὶ Ξέρξου συμμαχοῦντας τοῖς Πέρσαις ἐστρατευκέναι κατὰ τῆς Ἑλλάδος καὶ μόνους τῶν Ἑλλήνων ὡς εὐεργέτας τιμᾶσθαι παρὰ τοῖς βασιλεῦσι τῶν Περσῶν καὶ πρὸ τῶν βασιλέων τοῖς πρεσβεύουσι τῶν Θηβαίων τίθεσθαι θρόνους. [3] πολλὰ δὲ καὶ ἄλλα τοιαῦτα διελθόντες παρώξυναν τὰς τῶν συνέδρων ψυχὰς κατὰ τῶν Θηβαίων καὶ πέρας ἐψηφίσαντο τὴν μὲν πόλιν κατασκάψαι, τοὺς δ᾽ αἰχμαλώτους ἀποδόσθαι, τοὺς δὲ φυγάδας τῶν Θηβαίων ἀγωγίμους ὑπάρχειν ἐξ ἁπάσης τῆς Ἑλλάδος καὶ μηδένα τῶν Ἑλλήνων ὑποδέχεσθαι Θηβαῖον. [4] ὁ δὲ βασιλεὺς ἀκολούθως τῇ τοῦ συνεδρίου γνώμῃ τὴν μὲν πόλιν κατασκάψας»
- ^ I.16.7
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, Book ΙΖ' 48.[6] «οἱ δὲ σύνεδροι τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἐψηφίσαντο πέμψαι πρέσβεις πεντεκαίδεκα στέφανον φέροντας χρυσοῦν παρὰ τῆς Ἑλλάδος ἀριστεῖον Ἀλεξάνδρῳ καὶ συνησθησομένους τῇ κατὰ Κιλικίαν νίκῃ»
- ^ Savill, Agnes. Alexander the Great and his Time, p. 44 ISBN 0-88029-591-0
- ^ Alexander the Great: a reader By Ian Worthington Page 305 ISBN 0-415-29187-9
- ^ Plutarch, Alexander [13.1] & [13.2]: «Ἀθηναίοις δὲ διηλλάγη...ἀλλὰ καὶ προσέχειν ἐκέλευσε τοῖς πράγμασι τὸν νοῦν τὴν πόλιν, ὡς εἴ τι συμβαίη περὶ αὐτὸν, ἄρξουσαν τῆς Ἑλλάδος»
- ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B. Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History, p. 467 ISBN 0-19-509742-4
- ^ Trever, Albert Augustus. History of Ancient Civilization, Volume 1, p. 479 ISBN 0-7735-2890-3
Literatura
[uredi | uredi izvor]- Autenrieth, Georg (1891). A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. New York: Harper and Brothers.
- Bard, Kathryn A. (1999). Encyclopaedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-66524-2.
- Borza, Eugene N. (1999). Before Alexander: Constructing Early Macedonia. Claremont, CA: Regina Books. ISBN 0-941690-97-0.
- Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3042-1.
- Chamoux, François (2002). Hellenistic Civilization. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22241-3.
- Errington, Robert M. (1974). „Macedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance”. The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 94: 20—37. JSTOR 630417. S2CID 162629292. doi:10.2307/630417.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History
. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03314-0. - Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (2001). Collected Studies: Further Studies on Various Topics. Amsterdam: Hakkert.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander. Amsterdam: Hakkert. ISBN 9789025610500.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814883-6.
- Jones, Archer (2001). The Art of War in the Western World. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06966-8.
- Levinson, David (1992). Encyclopedia of World Cultures. 1. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. ISBN 978-0-8168-8840-5.
- Starr, Chester G. (1991). A History of the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506628-6.
- Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). The Greeks and Their Heritages. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-215256-5.
- Wilcken, Ulrich (1967). Alexander the Great. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9.
- Autenrieth, Georg (1891). A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. New York: Harper and Brothers.
- Bard, Kathryn A. (1999). Encyclopaedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-66524-2.
- Borza, Eugene N. (1999). Before Alexander: Constructing Early Macedonia. Claremont, CA: Regina Books. ISBN 0-941690-97-0.
- Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3042-1.
- Chamoux, François (2002). Hellenistic Civilization. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22241-3.
- Errington, Robert M. (1974). „Macedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance”. The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 94: 20—37. JSTOR 630417. S2CID 162629292. doi:10.2307/630417.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03314-0.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (2001). Collected Studies: Further Studies on Various Topics. Amsterdam: Hakkert.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander. Amsterdam: Hakkert. ISBN 9789025610500.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814883-6.
- Jones, Archer (2001). The Art of War in the Western World. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06966-8.
- Levinson, David (1992). Encyclopedia of World Cultures. 1. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. ISBN 978-0-8168-8840-5.
- Starr, Chester G. (1991). A History of the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506628-6.
- Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). The Greeks and Their Heritages. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-215256-5.
- Wilcken, Ulrich (1967). Alexander the Great. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9.
| Državne | |
|---|---|
| Ostale | |
