Velika čistka
Velika čistka ili Veliki teror (rus. Большой террор), takođe poznato kao Godina '37 (rus. 37-ой год) i Ježovšina ('doba Ježova'),[1] niz je kampanja političke represije i progona koji su se dešavali u Sovjetskom Savezu u periodu 1936—1938.[2] Ovu kampanju je zamislio i njome upravljao Josif Staljin. Počela je čišćenjem Komunističke partije i vladinih zvaničnika, represijom seljaka, a nastavljeno sa vođstvom Crvene armije, i progon nepodobnih lica. Obeležile su je jak policijski nadzor, rasprostranjena paranoja od „diverzanata“, zatvora, i pogubljenja. U ruskoj istoriografiji se period najintenzivnije čistke, 1937—1938, naziva Ježovščina po Nikolaju Ježovu, šefu sovjetske tajne policije, NKVD.[3] Istoričari procenjuju da je ukupan broj smrtnih slučajeva usled staljinističke represije 1937–38 između 950.000 i 1,2 miliona.[4]
„Operacija kulak“ i zlostavljanje nacionalnih manjina bile su glavne komponente Velikog terora. Zajedno su ove dve akcije činile devet desetina smrtnih presuda i tri četvrtine osuda na zatvorske logore Gulaga.
U zapadnom svetu knjiga Roberta Konkvesta iz 1968. godine The Great Terror popularizovala je ovu frazu. Sam Konkvestov naslov bio je aluzija na period Francuske revolucije poznat kao vladavina terora (francuski: la Terreur, „teror“; od juna do jula 1794: la Grande Terreur, „veliki teror“).[5]
Uvod[uredi | uredi izvor]
Izraz represija službeno se koristio za opisivanje krivičnog gonjenja ljudi koje je tadašnji lider Sovjetskog Saveza Josif Staljin smatrao kontrarevolucionarima i neprijateljima naroda. Istoričari raspravljaju o uzrocima čišćenja, poput Staljinove paranoje ili njegove želje da ukloni neistomišljenike iz Komunističke partije ili da učvrsti svoj autoritet. Čistke su počele u Crvenoj armiji, i tamo razvijene tehnike brzo su se prilagodile čišćenju u drugim sektorima.[6] Najviše pažnje javnosti bilo je usmereno na čišćenje određenih delova rukovodstva Komunističke partije, kao i vladinih birokrata i vođa oružanih snaga, od kojih su većina bili članovi partije. Te kampanje su uticale i na mnoge druge kategorije društva: inteligenciju, seljaštvo - posebno one koji pozajmljuju novac ili bogatstvo (kulake) - i profesionalce.[7]
Niz operacija NKVD-a zahvatio je brojne nacionalne manjine, optužene da su zajednice „pete kolone”. Poljska vojna organizacije je zvanično objasnila brojne čistke kao eliminisanje mogućnosti sabotaže i špijunaže, i shodno tome, mnoge žrtve čistke bili su obični sovjetski državljani poljskog porekla.
Prema govoru Nikite Hruščova iz 1956. godine „O kultu ličnosti i njegovim posledicama“ i istoričaru Robertu Konkvestu, veliki broj optužbi, posebno onih iznetih na Moskovskim procesima, zasnivao se na prinudnim priznanjima, često iznuđenim mučenjem,[8] i slobodnim tumačenjima Člana 58 Kaznenog zakona RSFSR, koji se bavio kontrarevolucionarnim zločinima. Pravni postupak, kako ga je definisao sovjetski zakon koji je tada bio na snazi, često su uglavnom zamenjivali skraćeni postupci NKVD trojki.[9]
Stotine hiljada žrtava optuženo je za razne političke zločine (špijunaža, rušenje poretka, sabotaža, antisovjetska agitacija, zavere za pripremu pobuna i državnih udara); oni su streljani po kratkom postupku ili poslati u radne logore Gulaga. Mnogi su umrli u kaznenim radnim logorima od gladi, bolesti, izloženosti i prekomernog rada. Eksperimentalno su korišćene i druge metode uklanjanja žrtava. U Moskvi je dokumentovana upotreba dušegupki koje su korišćene za ubijanje žrtava tokom njihovog prevoza do poligona Butovo.[note 1]
Vidi još[uredi | uredi izvor]
Napomene[uredi | uredi izvor]
- ^ This information was published first in 1990 in a Komsomolskaya Pravda article (October 28, 1990, p. 2). Later, it was cited by several sources, including: Albats, Yevgenia. 1995. KGB: The State Within a State. p. 101; Gellately, Robert. 2007. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4005-1. str. 460.; Merridale, Catherine. Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia. Penguin Books. 2002. pp. 200. ISBN 0-14-200063-9.; Colton, Timothy J. (1995). Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis. Harvard University Press. str. 286. ISBN 9780674587496.; and Alexandr Solzhenitsyn. Two Hundred Years Together.
Reference[uredi | uredi izvor]
- ^ In Russian historiography, the period of the most intense purge, 1937–1938, is called Yezhovshchina (lit. 'Yezhov phenomenon'), after Nikolai Yezhov, the head of the NKVD.
- ^ Gellately 2007.
- ^ Figes 2007, str. 227–315.
- ^ Ellman, Michael (2002). „Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments” (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 54 (7): 1151—1172. S2CID 43510161. doi:10.1080/0966813022000017177. „The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and world—history”
- ^ Rappaport, Helen (1999). Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO. str. 110. ISBN 978-1576070840. Pristupljeno 29. 9. 2015.
- ^ Whitewood, Peter. 2015. "The Purge of the Red Army and the Soviet Mass Operations, 1937–38." Slavonic & East European Review 93(2)) 286–314.
- ^ Conquest 2008, str. 250, 257–8.
- ^ Conquest 2008, str. 121 which cites his secret speech.
- ^ Conquest 2008, str. 286.
Literatura[uredi | uredi izvor]
- Rappaport, Helen (1999). Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO. str. 110. ISBN 978-1576070840. Pristupljeno 29. 9. 2015.
- WHEATCROFT, STEPHEN G. (1999). „Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival DataÐ Not the Last Word” (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 51 (2): 339. doi:10.1080/09668139999056.
- Homkes, Brett (2004). „Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Party Purge”. McNair Scholars Journal. 8 (1).
- Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2000) [1999]. The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00312-9.
- A. Artizov, Yu. Sigachev, I. Shevchuk, V. Khlopov under editorship of acad. A. N. Yakovlev. Rehabilitation: As It Happened. Documents of the CPSU CC Presidium and Other Materials. Vol. 2, February 1956–Early 1980s. Moscow, 2003.
- Chase, William J. (2001). Enemies within the Gates?: The Comintern and the Stalinist Repression, 1934–1939. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08242-5.
- Colton, Timothy J. (1998). Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-58749-6.
- Conquest, Robert (1973) [1968]. The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (Revised izd.). London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-527560-7.
- —— (1987). Stalin and the Kirov Murder. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505579-5.
- —— (2008) [1990]. The Great Terror: A Reassessment. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-531700-8.
- Courtois, Stéphane (1999). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-07608-2.
- Figes, Orlando (2007). The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9702-6.
- Gellately, Robert (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4005-6.
- Harris, James (2017). The Great Fear: Stalin's Terror of the 1930s. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198797869.
- Haynes, John Earl; Klehr, Harvey (2003). In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage. Encounter Books. ISBN 978-1-893554-72-6.
- Hill, Alexander (2017), The Red Army and the Second World War, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-1070-2079-5.
- Hoffman, David L., ur. (2003). Stalinism: The Essential Readings. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-0-631-22890-5.
- Ilic, Melanie, ur. (2006). Stalin's Terror Revisited. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). Crimes against humanity under communist regimes – Research review (PDF). Forum for Living History. ISBN 978-91-977487-2-8. Arhivirano iz originala (PDF) 2010-08-24. g.
- Koestler, Arthur (1940). Darkness at Noon.
- Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2007). The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12389-0.
- Lyons, Eugene (1937). Assignment in Utopia. Harcourt Brace and Company.
- McLoughlin, Barry; McDermott, Kevin (2002). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-0119-4.
- Merridale, Catherine (2002). Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-200063-2.
- Naimark, Norman M. (2010). Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14784-0.
- Parrish, Michael (1996). The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953. Westport, CT: Praeger Press. ISBN 978-0-275-95113-9.
- Rogovin, Vadim (1996). Two Lectures: Stalin's Great Terror: Origins and Consequences—Leon Trotsky and the Fate of Marxism in the USSR. Mehring books. ISBN 978-0-929087-83-2.
- —— (1998). 1937: Stalin's Year of Terror. Mehring Books. ISBN 978-0-929087-77-1.
- Rosefielde, Steven (2009). Red Holocaust. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-77757-5.
- Snyder, Timothy (2005). Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10670-1.
- —— (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00239-9 — preko Google Books.[mrtva veza]
- Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. (1973). The Gulag Archipelago, 1918–1956: In Three Volumes.. New York: Harper and Row.
- Thurston, Robert (1998) [1996]. Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07442-0.
- Tzouliadis, Tim (2008). The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-1-59420-168-4.
- Watt, Donald Cameron. "Who plotted against whom? Stalin's purge of the soviet high command revisited." Journal of Soviet Military Studies 3.1 (1990): 46-65.
- Wheatcroft, Stephen (1996). „The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45” (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 48 (8): 1319—1353. JSTOR 152781. doi:10.1080/09668139608412415.
- —— (2000). „The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest” (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 52 (6): 1143—1159. PMID 19326595. S2CID 205667754. doi:10.1080/09668130050143860.
- Whitewood, Peter. The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin’s Purge of the Soviet Military (2015)
- Whitewood, Peter. "The Purge of the Red Army and the Soviet Mass Operations, 1937–38." Slavonic & East European Review 93.2 (2015): 286-314. online
- —— "Subversion in the Red Army and the Military Purge of 1937–1938." Europe-Asia Studies 67.1 (2015): 102-122.
- —— "In the shadow of the war: Bolshevik perceptions of polish subversive and military threats to the Soviet Union, 1920–32." Journal of Strategic Studies (2019): 1-24.
- Yakovlev, Alexander N., ur. (1991). Reabilitaciя. Političeskie processы 30-50-h godov [Rehabilitation: Political Trials of the 1930s–50s]. Moscow: ROSSPEN.
- —— (2004) [2002]. A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10322-9.
Film[uredi | uredi izvor]
- Pultz, David, dir. 1997. Eternal Memory: Voices from the Great Terror [81:00, documentary film]. Narrated by Meryl Streep. USA.
Spoljašnje veze[uredi | uredi izvor]
- Историјска библиотека: Саботажа Стаљиновог гласа
- The Case of Bukharin—Transcript of Nikolai Bukharin's testimonies and last plea; from "The Case of the Anti-Soviet Block of Rights and Trotskyites", Red Star Press, 1973, pages 369–439, 767–779
- Actual video footage from Third Moscow Trial na sajtu YouTube
- Nicolas Werth Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)
- "Documenting the Death Toll: Research into the Mass Murder of Foreigners in Moscow, 1937–38" by Barry McLoughlin, American Historical Association, 1999