Парапсихологија
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Парапсихологија је псеудонаука која претендује да проучава неистражене делове људског ума. У парапсихологију се убрајају још недовољно изтражени феномени: телекинеза, телепатија, емпатија и манипулација енергије. Парапсихологија није призната област у психологији. Велика већина научника сматра да је парапсихологија псеудонаука делом због недостатка поновљивих емпиријских доказа, а делом и зато што низ парапсихолошких тврдњи једноставно не може бити истинит, „осим ако остатак науке није тачан”.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]
Истраживање парапсихологије углавном спроводе приватне институције у неколико земаља, а финансирају се путем приватних донација,[9][10] и тема се готово никада не појављује у главним научним часописима. Већина радова о парапсихологији објављена је у малом броју споредних часописа.[11][12] Парапсихологија је била критикована због настављања истраге упркос томе што није могла да пружи убедљиве доказе за постојање било каквих психичких појава након више од једног века истраживања.[13][14]
Терминологија
[уреди | уреди извор]Израз парапсихологија сковао је 1889. године филозоф Макс Десуар, као немачка „парапсихологија”.[15][16] Касније га је Џ. Б. Рајн усвојио током 1930-их као замену за термин психичка истраживања како би указао на значајан помак ка експерименталној методологији и академској дисциплини..[17] Израз потиче од грч. παρά para са значењем „поред”, и психологија.
У парапсихологији, psi је непознати фактор екстрасензорне перцепције и психокинетичких искустава који није објашњен познатим физичким или биолошким механизмима.[18][19] Израз је изведен из грчког ψ пси, 23. слова грчке абецеде и почетног слова грчке речи ψυχή psyche, са значењем „ум, душа”.[20][21] Израз је сковао биолог Бертолд П. Виснер, а први пут га је користио психолог Роберт Таулес у чланку из 1942. године објављеном у Британском журналу психологије.[22]
Референце
[уреди | уреди извор]- ^ Reber, Arthur; Alcock, James (2019). „Why parapsychological claims cannot be true”. Skeptical Inquirer. 43 (4): 8—10.
- ^ Gross, Paul R.; Levitt, Norman; Lewis, Martin W. (1996). The Flight from Science and Reason. New York City: New York Academy of Sciences. стр. 565. ISBN 978-0801856761. „The overwhelming majority of scientists consider parapsychology, by whatever name, to be pseudoscience.”
- ^ Friedlander, Michael W. (1998). At the Fringes of Science. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. стр. 119. ISBN 978-0-8133-2200-1. „Parapsychology has failed to gain general scientific acceptance even for its improved methods and claimed successes, and it is still treated with a lopsided ambivalence among the scientific community. Most scientists write it off as pseudoscience unworthy of their time.”
- ^ Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. Chicago, Illinois: University Of Chicago Press. стр. 158. ISBN 978-0-226-05196-3. hdl:1854/LU-3161824. „Many observers refer to the field as a 'pseudoscience'. When mainstream scientists say that the field of parapsychology is not scientific, they mean that no satisfying naturalistic cause-and-effect explanation for these supposed effects has yet been proposed and that the field's experiments cannot be consistently replicated.”
- ^ Alcock, James (1981). Parapsychology-Science Or Magic?: A Psychological Perspective. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press. стр. 194–196. ISBN 978-0080257730.
- ^ Hacking, Ian (1993). „Some reasons for not taking parapsychology very seriously”. Dialogue: Canadian Philosophical Review. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 32 (3): 587—594. doi:10.1017/s0012217300012361.
- ^ Bierman, DJ; Spottiswoode, JP; Bijl, A (2016). „Testing for Questionable Research Practices in a Meta-Analysis: An Example from Experimental Parapsychology”. PLoS ONE. San Francisco, California: Public Library of Science. 11 (5): 1. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1153049B. PMC 4856278
. PMID 27144889. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153049. „We consider [questionable research practices] in the context of a meta-analysis database of Ganzfeld–telepathy experiments from the field of experimental parapsychology. The Ganzfeld database is particularly suitable for this study, because the parapsychological phenomenon it investigates is widely believed to be nonexistent ... results are still significant (p = 0.003) with QRPs.”
- ^ Carroll, Sean (11. 5. 2016). „Thinking About Psychic Powers Helps Us Think About Science”. WIRED. New York City: Condé Nast. „Today, parapsychology is not taken seriously by most academics.”
- ^ „Koestler Parapsychology Unit”. University of Edinburgh. Приступљено 9. 3. 2009.
- ^ Odling-Smee, Lucy (1. 3. 2007). „The lab that asked the wrong questions”. Nature. 446 (7131): 10—11. Bibcode:2007Natur.446...10O. PMID 17330012. doi:10.1038/446010a. Приступљено 29. 6. 2007. „[Outside the US] the field is livelier. Britain is a lead player, with privately funded labs at the universities of Edinburgh, Northampton and Liverpool Hope, among others."..."The status of paranormal research in the United States is now at an all-time low, after a relative surge of interest in the 1970s. Money continues to pour from philanthropic sources to private institutions, but any chance of credibility depends on ties with universities, and only a trickle of research now persists in university labs.”
- ^ (Pigliucci, Boudry 2013) "Parapsychological research almost never appears in mainstream science journals."
- ^ (Odling-Smee 2007) "But parapsychologists are still limited to publishing in a small number of niche journals."
- ^ Cordón, Luis A. (2005). Popular Psychology: An Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. стр. 182. ISBN 978-0-313-32457-4. „The essential problem is that a large portion of the scientific community, including most research psychologists, regards parapsychology as a pseudoscience, due largely to its failure to move beyond null results in the way science usually does. Ordinarily, when experimental evidence fails repeatedly to support a hypothesis, that hypothesis is abandoned. Within parapsychology, however, more than a century of experimentation has failed even to conclusively demonstrate the mere existence of paranormal phenomenon, yet parapsychologists continue to pursue that elusive goal.”
- ^
- Hyman, R. (1986). „Parapsychological research: A tutorial review and critical appraisal” (PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 74 (6): 823—849. doi:10.1109/PROC.1986.13557. Приступљено 20. 9. 2008.
- Kurtz, Paul (1981), „Is Parapsychology a Science?”, Ур.: Kendrick Frazier, Paranormal Borderlands of Science, Prometheus Books, стр. 5—23, ISBN 978-0-87975-148-7, „If parapsychologists can convince the skeptics, then they will have satisfied an essential criterion of a genuine science: the ability to replicate hypotheses in any and all laboratories and under standard experimental conditions. Until they can do that, their claims will continue to be held suspect by a large body of scientists.”
- Flew, Antony (1982). Grim, Patrick, ур. Parapsychology: Science or Pseudoscience? in Philosophy of Science and the Occult. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0873955720.
- Bunge, Mario (1991). „A skeptic's beliefs and disbeliefs”. New Ideas in Psychology. 9 (2): 131—149. doi:10.1016/0732-118X(91)90017-G.
- Blitz, David (1991). „The line of demarcation between science and nonscience: The case of psychoanalysis and parapsychology”. New Ideas in Psychology. 9 (2): 163—170. doi:10.1016/0732-118X(91)90020-M.
- Stein, Gordon (1996), The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal, Prometheus Books, стр. 249, ISBN 978-1-57392-021-6, „Mainstream science is on the whole very dubious about ESP, and the only way that most scientists will be persuaded is by a demonstration that can be generally reproduced by neutral or even skeptical scientists. This is something that parapsychology has never succeeded in producing.”
- ^ Bringmann, Wolfgang G.; Lück, Helmut E. (15. 6. 1997). A Pictorial History of Psychology. Quintessence Pub. ISBN 978-0-86715-292-0.
- ^ Dessoir, Max (јун 1889). „Die Parapsychologie” [Parapsychology] (PDF). Sphinx (на језику: немачки). 7 (42): 341 — преко IAPSOP.
- ^ Melton, J. G. (1996). Parapsychology. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0-8103-9487-2.
- ^ Irwin, Harvey J.; Watt, Caroline A. (2007). An Introduction to Parapsychology (5th изд.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. стр. 6. ISBN 978-0786430598.
- ^ Wynn, Charles M.; Wiggins, Arthur W. (2001). Quantum Leaps in the Wrong Direction: Where Real Science Ends...and Pseudoscience Begins. Joseph Henry Press. стр. 152. ISBN 978-0309073097.
- ^ „Parapsychology FAQ Page 1”. Parapsych.org. 28. 2. 2008. Архивирано из оригинала 26. 6. 2007. г. Приступљено 11. 4. 2014.
- ^ „Glossary of Psi (Parapsychological) Terms (L-R)”. Parapsych.org. Архивирано из оригинала 24. 8. 2010. г. Приступљено 11. 4. 2014.
- ^ Thouless, R. H. (1942). „Experiments on paranormal guessing”. British Journal of Psychology. London, England: Wiley-Blackwell. 33: 15—27. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1942.tb01036.x.
Литература
[уреди | уреди извор]- Allison, Paul D. (1979). „Experimental Parapsychology as a Rejected Science”. The Sociological Review. 27 (suppl): 271—291. doi:10.1111/j.1467-954X.1979.tb00065.x.
- Alcock, James (1981). Parapsychology-Science Or Magic?: A Psychological Perspective. Pergamon Press.
- Bunge, Mario (1987). „Why Parapsychology Cannot Become a Science”. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 10 (4): 576—577. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00054595.
- Hines, Terence (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-979-4
- Irwin, Harvey J.; Watt, Caroline. (2007). An Introduction to Parapsychology. McFarland & Company. стр. 320. ISBN 978-0-7864-3059-8.
- Marks, David (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic (2nd Edition). New York: Prometheus Books. стр. 336. ISBN 978-1-57392-798-7.
- Moore, E. Garth (1977). Believe It or Not: Christianity and Psychical Research. London: Mowbray. ISBN 0-264-66010-2
- Neher, Andrew (2011). Paranormal and Transcendental Experience: A Psychological Examination. Dover Publications.
- Randi, James (јун 1982). Flim-Flam! Psychics, ESP, Unicorns, and Other Delusions. Prometheus Books. стр. 342. ISBN 978-0-345-40946-1.
- Randi, James; Arthur C. Clarke (1997). An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural. St. Martin's Griffin. стр. 336. ISBN 978-0-312-15119-5.
- Sagan, Carl; Ann Druyan (1997). The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. Ballantine Books. стр. 349. ISBN 978-0-345-40946-1.
- Shepard, Leslie (2000). Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology. Thomson Gale. стр. 1939. ISBN 978-0-8103-8570-2.
- Shermer, Michael (2003). „Psychic drift. Why most scientists do not believe in ESP and psi phenomena”. Scientific American. 288: 2.
- Wiseman, Richard; Watt, Caroline (2005). Parapsychology (International Library of Psychology). Ashgate Publishing. стр. 501 pages. ISBN 978-0-7546-2450-9.
Спољашње везе
[уреди | уреди извор]
- The Division of Perceptual Studies Архивирано на сајту Wayback Machine (8. мај 2014) at the University of Virginia School of Medicine.
- Institute of Noetic Sciences A nonprofit organization that sponsors research in parapsychology.
- Parapsychological Association An organization of scientists and scholars engaged in the study of psychic phenomena, affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1969.
- Rhine Research Center A historical parapsychological research center featuring the first building ever made for experimental work in parapsychology. The Rhine Research Center is a hub for research and education in Parapsychology.
- Society for Psychical Research Founded in 1882, the SPR was the first society to conduct organised scholarly research into parapsychology and other human experiences that challenge contemporary scientific models. It continues its work today.
- Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Архивирано на сајту Wayback Machine (2. септембар 2011) Organization formed in 1976 to promote scientific skepticism and encourage the critical investigation of paranormal claims and parapsychology.
- James Randi Educational Foundation The James Randi Education Foundation(JREF) was founded to promote critical thinking in the areas of the supernatural and paranormal. The JREF has provided skeptical views in the area of parapsychology.
- FindArticles.com Index Large number of articles about parapsychology, from publications such as the Journal of Parapsychology and the Skeptical Inquirer.
- Парапсихологија на сајту Curlie (језик: енглески)
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