Алтруизам — разлика између измена

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Верзија на датум 3. октобар 2021. у 20:54

Алтруизам (лат. alter — други) јест несебична брига за добробит других. Термин означава животни став који укључује несебичност, наклоност, љубав према другоме и спремност да му се помогне, по цену личне штете и жртве, без икакве накнаде или спољашње награде.^[1] То је оно понашање које се обично описује као „несебично“ јер су интереси других стављени изнад властитих интереса. Алтруистични поступци су свесни и садрже намеру да се некоме помогне и захтевају одређено жртвовање и одрицање. Стога би, према овом одређењу, алтруистичко понашање било једна одређена врста просоцијалног (за друштво) понашања. Појам је сачинио Огист Конт око 1830. године. Противан појам је егоизам.

The word "altruism" was popularized (and possibly coined) by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as altruisme, for an antonym of egoism.^[2]^[3] He derived it from the Italian altrui, which in turn was derived from Latin alteri, meaning "other people" or "somebody else".^[4]

Altruism in biological observations in field populations of the day organisms is an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is "intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards".^[5] In one sense, the opposite of altruism is spite; a spiteful action harms another with no self-benefit.

Научна гледишта

Антропологија

Marcel Mauss's essay The Gift contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes:

Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.

Еволуциона објашњења

In the science of ethology (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor.^[6] In evolutionary psychology this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, tipping, courtship gifts, production of public goods, and environmentalism.^[7]

Види још

Хуманитарни рад

Референце

^ Иван Видановић, Речник социјалног рада
^ „altruism (n .)”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Приступљено 27. 5. 2021.
^ Teske, Nathan (2009). Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press. стр. 101. ISBN 9780271035468.
^ Ciciloni, Ferdinando (1825). A Grammar of the Italian Language. London: John Murray. стр. 64.
^ Steinberg, David (2010). „Altruism in medicine: its definition, nature, and dilemmas”. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics. 19 (2): 249—57. PMID 20226108. S2CID 30534335. doi:10.1017/s0963180109990521.
^ Bell, Graham (2008). Selection: the mechanism of evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. стр. 367–368. ISBN 978-0-19-856972-5.
^ Pat Barcaly. The evolution of charitable behaviour and the power of reputation. In Roberts, S. C. (2011). Roberts, S. Craig, ур. Applied Evolutionary Psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199586073. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001.

Литература

Oord, Thomas (2007). The Altruism Reader. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press. ISBN 978-1-59947-127-3.
Oord, Thomas (2010). Defining Love. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press. ISBN 978-1-58743-257-6.
Batson, Charles (1991). The Altruism Question. Mahwah: L. Erlbaum, Associates. ISBN 978-0-8058-0245-0.
Nowak, M. A. (2006). „Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation”. Science. 314 (5805): 1560—1563. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1560N. PMC 3279745 . PMID 17158317. doi:10.1126/science.1133755.
Fehr, E.; Fischbacher, U. (2003). „The nature of human altruism”. Nature. 425 (6960): 785—791. Bibcode:2003Natur.425..785F. PMID 14574401. S2CID 4305295. doi:10.1038/nature02043.
Comte, Auguste, Catechisme positiviste (1852) or Catechism of Positivism, tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891)
Knox, T. (1999). „The volunteer's folly and socio-economic man: some thoughts on altruism, rationality, and community”. Journal of Socio-Economics. 28 (4): 475—967. doi:10.1016/S1053-5357(99)00045-1.
Kropotkin, Peter, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1902)
Oord, Thomas (2004). Science of Love. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press. ISBN 978-1-932031-70-6.
Nietzsche, Friedrich, Beyond Good and Evil
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, The Philosophy of Poverty (1847)
Lysander Spooner, Natural Law
Matt Ridley, The Origins of Virtue
Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995.
Axelrod, Robert (1984). The Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02121-5.
Dawkins, Richard (1989). The Selfish Gene. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-286092-7.
Wright, Robert (1995). The Moral Animal. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-76399-4.
Madsen, E. A.; Tunney, R. J.; Fieldman, G.; Plotkin, H. C.; Dunbar, R. I. M.; Richardson, J. M.; McFarland, D. (2007). „Kinship and altruism: A cross-cultural experimental study”. British Journal of Psychology. 98 (Pt 2): 339—359. PMID 17456276. doi:10.1348/000712606X129213.
Wedekind, C.; Milinski, M. (1996). „Human Cooperation in the simultaneous and the alternating Prisoner's Dilemma: Pavlov versus Generous Tit-for-tat”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 93 (7): 2686—2689. Bibcode:1996PNAS...93.2686W. PMC 39691 . PMID 11607644. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.7.2686 .
Monk-Turner, E.; Blake, V.; Chniel, F.; Forbes, S.; Lensey, L.; Madzuma, J. (2002). „Helping hands: A study of altruistic behavior”. Gender Issues. 20 (4): 65—70. S2CID 144977956. doi:10.1007/s12147-002-0024-2.
Public Library, Brooklyn (1919). Bulletin of the Brooklyn Public Library.
Mydans, Seth (20 September 2007). Monks Pressure Myanmar Junta (New York Times). Retrieved 20 September 2007 from "The New York Times
Nyanatiloka Mahathera (4th ed., 1980). Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 955-24-0019-8. Available on-line at Budsas.org
Pāli Text Society (PTS) (1921–1925). The Pāli Text Society's Pāli-English dictionary. London: Chipstead. Available on-line at Uchicago.edu Архивирано 2021-07-25 на сајту Wayback Machine
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997). Tanhavagga: Craving (Dhp XXIV). Available on-line at Accesstoinsight.org
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2001). The Group of Fours (Itivuttaka 4). Available on-line at Accesstoinsight.org
Tsongkhapa & Alexander Berzin (trans.) (2001). The Abbreviated Points of the Graded Path. Available on-line at StudyBuddhism.com
Bell G (2008). Selection: The Mechanism of Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. стр. 367–368. ISBN 978-0-19-856972-5.
Okasha S (2008). „Biological altruism”. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Приступљено 20. 7. 2013.
„altruism (n .)”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Приступљено 19. 9. 2014.
Teske N (2009). Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press. стр. 101. ISBN 9780271035468.
Ciciloni F (1825). A Grammar of the Italian Language. London: John Murray. стр. 64.
Davies NB, Krebs JR, West SA (9. 4. 2012). „11”. An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology. John Wiley & Sons. стр. 307—333. ISBN 978-1-4443-3949-9.
Galliard, Jean-François Le; Ferriére, Regis; Dieckmann, Ulf (2003). „The Adaptive Dynamics of Altruism in Spatially Heterogeneous Populations”. Evolution (на језику: енглески). 57 (1): 1—17. ISSN 1558-5646. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00211.x.
Alcock A (2009). Animal Behavior (9th изд.). Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0878932252.
Trivers RL (1971). „The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism”. The Quarterly Review of Biology. 46 (1): 35—57. JSTOR 2822435. S2CID 19027999. doi:10.1086/406755.
Williams, G.C. (1972) Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought. Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-02357-3
Smith JM (1964). „Group selection and kin selection”. Nature. 201 (4924): 1145—1147. Bibcode:1964Natur.201.1145S. S2CID 4177102. doi:10.1038/2011145a0.
Dawkins R (1995). River Out of Eden. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-06990-3.
Dawkins R (1994). „Burying the Vehicle Commentary on Wilson & Sober: Group Selection”. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 17 (4): 616—617. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036207. Архивирано из оригинала 2006-09-15. г.
Dennett DC (1994). „E Pluribus Unum? Commentary on Wilson & Sober: Group Selection”. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 17 (4): 617—618. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036219. Архивирано из оригинала 2007-12-27. г.
Pinker, S. (2012). The False Allure of Group Selection. Edge, Jun 19, 2012. http://edge.org/conversation/the-false-allure-of-group-selection
Hamilton WD (јул 1964). „The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I”. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 7 (1): 1—16. Bibcode:1964JThBi...7....1H. PMID 5875341. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4.

Спољашње везе

Zalta, Edward N. (ур.). „Biological Altruism”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Altruism on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
„The Good Show”. Radiolab. Сезона 9. Епизода 1. New York. 14. 12. 2011. WNYC.
Richard Kraut (2016) Altruism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[1] Иван Видановић, Речник социјалног рада

[2] „altruism (n .)”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Приступљено 27. 5. 2021.

[3] Teske, Nathan (2009). Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press. стр. 101. ISBN 9780271035468.

[4] Ciciloni, Ferdinando (1825). A Grammar of the Italian Language. London: John Murray. стр. 64.

[5] Steinberg, David (2010). „Altruism in medicine: its definition, nature, and dilemmas”. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics. 19 (2): 249—57. PMID 20226108. S2CID 30534335. doi:10.1017/s0963180109990521.

[Bell2008-6] Bell, Graham (2008). Selection: the mechanism of evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. стр. 367–368. ISBN 978-0-19-856972-5.

[AEP1-7] Pat Barcaly. The evolution of charitable behaviour and the power of reputation. In Roberts, S. C. (2011). Roberts, S. Craig, ур. Applied Evolutionary Psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199586073. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001.

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@@ Ред 1: / Ред 1: @@
+{{short description|Принцип или пракса бриге за добробит других}}{{rut}}
 [[Слика:The Crèche.jpg|мини|250п|''Алтруизам'']]
+[[Слика:Belisaire demandant l'aumone Jacques-Louis David.jpg|thumb|250п|Давање [[Помана|милостиње]] сиромашнима често се сматра алтруистичком радњом.]]
-'''Алтруизам''' ({{jez-lat|alter}} — други) јест несебична брига за добробит других. [[Термин]] означава [[живот]]ни став који укључује несебичност, наклоност, [[љубав]] према другоме и спремност да му се помогне, по цену личне штете и жртве, без икакве накнаде или спољашње награде.<ref>Иван Видановић, [[Речник социјалног рада]]</ref> То је оно понашање које се обично описује као „несебично“ јер су интереси других стављени изнад властитих интереса. Алтруистични поступци су свесни и садрже намеру да се некоме помогне и захтевају одређено жртвовање и одрицање. Стога би, према овом одређењу, алтруистичко понашање било једна одређена врста просоцијалног (за друштво) понашања.
+'''Алтруизам''' ({{jez-lat|alter}} — други) јест несебична брига за добробит других. [[Термин]] означава [[живот]]ни став који укључује несебичност, наклоност, [[љубав]] према другоме и спремност да му се помогне, по цену личне штете и жртве, без икакве накнаде или спољашње награде.<ref>Иван Видановић, [[Речник социјалног рада]]</ref> То је оно понашање које се обично описује као „несебично“ јер су интереси других стављени изнад властитих интереса. Алтруистични поступци су свесни и садрже намеру да се некоме помогне и захтевају одређено жртвовање и одрицање. Стога би, према овом одређењу, алтруистичко понашање било једна одређена врста просоцијалног (за друштво) понашања. Појам је сачинио [[Огист Конт]] око [[1830]]. године. Противан појам је [[егоизам]].
-Појам је сачинио [[Огист Конт]] око [[1830]]. године. Противан појам је [[егоизам]].
+The word "altruism" was popularized (and possibly coined) by the French philosopher [[Auguste Comte]] in French, as ''altruisme'', for an [[antonym]] of [[egoism]].<ref>{{cite web |title=altruism (n .) |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=altruism |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Douglas Harper |access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Teske |first1=Nathan |title=Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation |date=2009|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |location=University Park, Pa. |isbn=9780271035468|page=101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7B38I2UEPa0C}}</ref> He derived it from the Italian ''altrui'', which in turn was derived from Latin ''alteri'', meaning "[[alterity|other people]]" or "somebody else".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ciciloni|first1=Ferdinando|title=A Grammar of the Italian Language|date=1825|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog/page/n81 64]|url=https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog}}</ref>
+Altruism in [[Biology|biological]] observations in field populations of the day organisms is an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is "intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards".<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Altruism in medicine: its definition, nature, and dilemmas|last = Steinberg|first = David|date = 2010|journal = Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=249–57|doi = 10.1017/s0963180109990521|pmid = 20226108|s2cid = 30534335}}</ref> In one sense, the opposite of altruism is [[Spite (sentiment)|spite]]; a spiteful action harms another with no self-benefit.
+== Научна гледишта ==
+=== Антропологија ===
+[[Marcel Mauss]]'s essay ''[[The Gift (essay)|The Gift]]'' contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes:
+<blockquote>Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.</blockquote>
+=== Еволуциона објашњења ===
+[[File:Manner of Francis Wheatley, Giving alms to beggar children.jpg|thumb|250п|Давање милостиње просјачкој деци]]
+In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of [[Sociocultural evolution|social evolution]], altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor.<ref name="Bell2008">{{cite book| last = Bell| first = Graham| title = Selection: the mechanism of evolution| url = https://archive.org/details/selectionmechani00bell_664| url-access = limited| year = 2008| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford| isbn = 978-0-19-856972-5| pages = [https://archive.org/details/selectionmechani00bell_664/page/n381 367]–368 }}</ref> In [[evolutionary psychology]] this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as [[Charity (practice)|charity]], [[emergency aid]], help to coalition partners, [[Tip (gratuity)|tipping]], [[courtship]] gifts, production of [[Public good (economics)|public good]]s, and [[environmentalism]].<ref name="AEP1">Pat Barcaly. The evolution of charitable behaviour and the power of reputation. In {{Cite book | last1 = Roberts | first1 = S. C. | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780199586073 }}</ref>
 == Види још ==
@@ Ред 10: / Ред 27: @@
 {{reflist}}
+== Литература ==
-{{клица-психологија}}
+{{Refbegin|30em}}
+* {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = The Altruism Reader| year = 2007| publisher = Templeton Foundation Press| location = Philadelphia| isbn = 978-1-59947-127-3 }}
+* {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = Defining Love| year = 2010| publisher = Brazos Press| location = Grand Rapids| isbn = 978-1-58743-257-6 }}
+* {{cite book| last = Batson| first = Charles| title = The Altruism Question| year = 1991| publisher = L. Erlbaum, Associates| location = Mahwah| isbn = 978-0-8058-0245-0 }}
+* {{Cite journal
+| pages = 1560–1563
+| year = 2006
+| pmid = 17158317
+| pmc = 3279745
+| doi = 10.1126/science.1133755
+| issue = 5805
+| volume = 314
+| title = Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation
+| journal = Science
+| last1 = Nowak | first1 = M. A.
+|bibcode = 2006Sci...314.1560N }}
+* {{Cite journal
+| last1 = Fehr | first1 = E.
+| last2 = Fischbacher | first2 = U.
+| title = The nature of human altruism
+| journal = Nature
+| volume = 425
+| issue = 6960
+| pages = 785–791
+| year = 2003
+| pmid = 14574401
+| doi = 10.1038/nature02043
+|bibcode = 2003Natur.425..785F | s2cid = 4305295
+| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9042569}}
+* [[Auguste Comte|Comte, Auguste]], ''Catechisme positiviste'' (1852) or ''Catechism of Positivism'', tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891)
+* {{Cite journal
+| last1 = Knox | first1 = T.
+| title = The volunteer's folly and socio-economic man: some thoughts on altruism, rationality, and community
+| journal = Journal of Socio-Economics
+| volume = 28
+| issue = 4
+| pages = 475–967
+| year = 1999
+| doi = 10.1016/S1053-5357(99)00045-1
+}}
+* [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin, Peter]], ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' (1902)
+* {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = Science of Love| year = 2004| publisher = Templeton Foundation Press| location = Philadelphia| isbn = 978-1-932031-70-6 }}
+* [[Nietzsche, Friedrich]], ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]''
+* [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1847)
+* [[Lysander Spooner]], ''Natural Law''
+* [[Matt Ridley]], ''[[The Origins of Virtue]]''
+* Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995.
+* {{cite book| last = Axelrod| first = Robert| title = The Evolution of Cooperation| url = https://archive.org/details/evolutionofcoope1984axel| url-access = registration| year = 1984| publisher = Basic Books| location = New York| isbn = 978-0-465-02121-5 }}
+* {{cite book| last = Dawkins| first = Richard| title = The Selfish Gene| year = 1989| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford Oxfordshire| isbn = 978-0-19-286092-7| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/selfishgene00dawkrich}}
+* {{cite book|last=Wright|first=Robert|title=The Moral Animal|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|year=1995|isbn=978-0-679-76399-4}}
+* {{Cite journal
+| last1 = Madsen | first1 = E. A.
+| last2 = Tunney | first2 = R. J.
+| last3 = Fieldman | first3 = G.
+| last4 = Plotkin | first4 = H. C.
+| last5 = Dunbar | first5 = R. I. M.
+| last6 = Richardson | first6 = J. M.
+| last7 = McFarland | first7 = D.
+| title = Kinship and altruism: A cross-cultural experimental study
+| journal = British Journal of Psychology
+| volume = 98
+| issue = Pt 2
+| pages = 339–359
+| year = 2007
+| pmid = 17456276
+| doi = 10.1348/000712606X129213
+| url = http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/4091558}}
+* {{cite journal | last1 = Wedekind | first1 = C. | last2 = Milinski | first2 = M. | year = 1996 | title = Human Cooperation in the simultaneous and the alternating Prisoner's Dilemma: Pavlov versus Generous Tit-for-tat | journal =  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume = 93 | issue = 7| pages = 2686–2689 | doi=10.1073/pnas.93.7.2686| pmid = 11607644 |bibcode = 1996PNAS...93.2686W | doi-access = free | pmc = 39691 }}
+* {{Cite journal
+| last1 = Monk-Turner | first1 = E.
+| last2 = Blake | first2 = V.
+| last3 = Chniel | first3 = F.
+| last4 = Forbes | first4 = S.
+| last5 = Lensey | first5 = L.
+| last6 = Madzuma | first6 = J.
+| title = Helping hands: A study of altruistic behavior
+| journal = Gender Issues
+| volume = 20
+| issue = 4
+| pages = 65–70
+| year = 2002
+| doi = 10.1007/s12147-002-0024-2
+| s2cid = 144977956
+| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226385420}}
+* {{ cite book| last = Public Library| first = Brooklyn| title = Bulletin of the Brooklyn Public Library|
+ year = 1919}}
+* Mydans, Seth (20 September 2007). ''Monks Pressure Myanmar Junta'' (New York Times). Retrieved 20 September 2007 from "The [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/20/world/asia/20cnd-myanmar.html?_r=1&hp=&adxnnl=1&oref=slogin&adxnnlx=1190317793-WFaRWsDL7E5KoNddBiTQ5A New York Times]
+* Nyanatiloka Mahathera (4th ed., 1980). ''Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines.'' Kandy, Sri Lanka: [[Buddhist Publication Society]]. {{ISBN|955-24-0019-8}}. Available on-line at [http://www.budsas.org/ebud/bud-dict/dic_idx.htm Budsas.org]
+* [[Pāli Text Society]] (PTS) (1921–1925). ''The Pāli Text Society's Pāli-English dictionary''. London: Chipstead. Available on-line at [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/ Uchicago.edu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725103343/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/ |date=2021-07-25 }}
+* [[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]] (trans.) (1997). ''Tanhavagga: Craving'' ([[Dhammapada|Dhp]] XXIV). Available on-line at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/dhp/dhp.24.than.html Accesstoinsight.org]
+* Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2001). ''The Group of Fours'' (Itivuttaka 4). Available on-line at  [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/iti/iti.4.100-112.than.html Accesstoinsight.org]
+* [[Tsongkhapa]] & Alexander Berzin (trans.) (2001). ''The Abbreviated Points of the Graded Path''. Available on-line at [http://studybuddhism.com/en/tibetan-buddhism/original-texts/sutra-texts/the-abbreviated-points-of-the-graded-path StudyBuddhism.com]
+* {{cite book| vauthors = Bell G | title = Selection: The Mechanism of Evolution| url = https://archive.org/details/selectionmechani00bell_664| url-access = limited| year = 2008| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford| isbn = 978-0-19-856972-5| pages = [https://archive.org/details/selectionmechani00bell_664/page/n381 367]–368 }}
+* {{cite web |url= http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/ |title=Biological altruism| vauthors = Okasha S |publisher=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2008|access-date=July 20, 2013}}
+* {{cite web|title=altruism (n .)|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=altruism|work=Online Etymology Dictionary|publisher=Douglas Harper|access-date=September 19, 2014}}
+* {{cite book| vauthors = Teske N |title=Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation|date=2009|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|location=University Park, Pa.|isbn=9780271035468|page=101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7B38I2UEPa0C}}
+* {{cite book| vauthors = Ciciloni F |title=A Grammar of the Italian Language|date=1825|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog/page/n81 64]|url=https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog}}
+* {{cite book| vauthors = Davies NB, Krebs JR, West SA |title=An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G9mXO5asWi8C|date=April 9, 2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3949-9 |pages=307–333|chapter=11}}
+* {{Cite journal|last=Galliard|first=Jean-François Le|last2=Ferriére|first2=Regis|last3=Dieckmann|first3=Ulf|date=2003|title=The Adaptive Dynamics of Altruism in Spatially Heterogeneous Populations|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00211.x|journal=Evolution|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=1–17|doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00211.x|issn=1558-5646}}
+* {{cite book|title = Animal Behavior | vauthors = Alcock A |edition =9th |isbn =978-0878932252|publisher = Sinauer Associates|date = 2009}}
+* {{Cite journal | vauthors = Trivers RL | title = The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism | journal = The Quarterly Review of Biology | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 35–57 | year = 1971 | doi = 10.1086/406755 | jstor = 2822435 | s2cid = 19027999 | author-link = Robert L. Trivers }}
+* [[George C. Williams (biologist)|Williams, G.C.]] (1972) Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought. Princeton University Press.{{ISBN|0-691-02357-3}}
+* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1038/2011145a0 | vauthors = Smith JM | s2cid = 4177102 | author-link = John Maynard Smith | year = 1964 | title = Group selection and kin selection | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 201 | issue = 4924| pages = 1145–1147 |bibcode = 1964Natur.201.1145S }}
+* {{cite book | vauthors = Dawkins R | author-link = Richard Dawkins | title = River Out of Eden | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | year = 1995 | isbn = 978-0-465-06990-3 | title-link = River Out of Eden }}
+* {{cite journal | vauthors = Dawkins R | author-link = Richard Dawkins | year = 1994 | title = Burying the Vehicle Commentary on Wilson & Sober: Group Selection | journal = Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 17 | issue = 4| pages = 616–617 | url =http://www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk/dawkins/WorldOfDawkins-archive/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1994burying_the_vehicle.shtml | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060915085010/http://www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk/dawkins/WorldOfDawkins-archive/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1994burying_the_vehicle.shtml | archive-date = 2006-09-15 | doi=10.1017/s0140525x00036207}}
+* {{cite journal | vauthors = Dennett DC | author-link = Daniel Dennett | year = 1994 | title = E Pluribus Unum? Commentary on Wilson & Sober: Group Selection | url =http://cogprints.org/281/0/wilsonso.htm | journal = Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 17 | issue = 4| pages = 617–618 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227065311/http://cogprints.org/281/0/wilsonso.htm | archive-date=2007-12-27 | doi=10.1017/s0140525x00036219}}
+* Pinker, S. (2012). [http://edge.org/conversation/the-false-allure-of-group-selection The False Allure of Group Selection].  Edge,  Jun 19, 2012.  http://edge.org/conversation/the-false-allure-of-group-selection
+* {{cite journal | vauthors = Hamilton WD | title = The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I | journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–16 | date = July 1964 | pmid = 5875341 | doi = 10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4 | bibcode = 1964JThBi...7....1H }}
+{{Refend}}
+== Спољашње везе ==
+{{Commons category|Altruism}}
+* {{cite SEP |url-id=altruism-biological |title=Biological Altruism}}
+* {{In Our Time|Altruism|p0038x9c|Altruism}}
+* {{cite episode|series=Radiolab |title=The Good Show|url=https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/radiolab/episodes/103951-the-good-show/|station=WNYC|location=New York|air-date=14 December 2011|season=9|number=1}}
+* Richard Kraut (2016) [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/ Altruism] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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