Осећање кривице

Ботаничка башта Глазгова. Кибле Плејс. Едвин Роско Малинс – Каин или Моја казна је већа него што могу да поднесем (Постанак 4:13), око 1899.

Осећање кривице је непријатно осећање које се јавља када се стварно или само у мислима прекрши нека морална норма. Представља субјективну, болну оцену тог догађаја као морално неисправног, а себе самог као недостојног или грешног. Осећање кривице има улогу моћног унутрашњег регулатора моралног понашања људи. Несвесно осећање кривице манифестује се као потреба за казном, неуроза судбине, морални мазохизам, меланхолија.

Кривица је важан фактор у одржавању симптома опсесивно-компулзивног поремећаја.

Психологија

Guilt and its associated causes, advantages, and disadvantages are common themes in psychology and psychiatry. Both in specialized and in ordinary language, guilt is an affective state in which one experiences conflict at having done something that one believes one should not have done (or conversely, having not done something one believes one should have done). It gives rise to a feeling which does not go away easily, driven by 'conscience'. Sigmund Freud described this as the result of a struggle between the ego and the superego – parental imprinting. Freud rejected the role of God as punisher in times of illness or rewarder in time of wellness. While removing one source of guilt from patients, he described another. This was the unconscious force within the individual that contributed to illness, Freud in fact coming to consider "the obstacle of an unconscious sense of guilt...as the most powerful of all obstacles to recovery." For his later explicator, Jacques Lacan, guilt was the inevitable companion of the signifying subject who acknowledged normality in the form of the Symbolic order.

Alice Miller claims that "many people suffer all their lives from this oppressive feeling of guilt, the sense of not having lived up to their parents' expectations....no argument can overcome these guilt feelings, for they have their beginnings in life's earliest period, and from that they derive their intensity." This may be linked to what Les Parrott has called "the disease of false guilt....At the root of false guilt is the idea that what you feel must be true."

The philosopher Martin Buber underlined the difference between the Freudian notion of guilt, based on internal conflicts, and existential guilt, based on actual harm done to others.

Guilt is often associated with anxiety. In mania, according to Otto Fenichel, the patient succeeds in applying to guilt "the defense mechanism of denial by overcompensation...re-enacts being a person without guilt feelings."

In psychological research, guilt can be measured by using questionnaires, such as the Differential Emotions Scale (Izard's DES), or the Dutch Guilt Measurement Instrument.

Defenses

According to psychoanalytic theory, defenses against feeling guilt can become an overriding aspect of one's personality. The methods that can be used to avoid guilt are multiple. They include:

1. Repression, usually used by the superego and ego against instinctive impulses, but on occasion employed against the superego/conscience itself. If the defence fails, then (in a return of the repressed) one may begin to feel guilty years later for actions lightly committed at the time.
2. Projection is another defensive tool with wide applications. It may take the form of blaming the victim: The victim of someone else's accident or bad luck may be offered criticism, the theory being that the victim may be at fault for having attracted the other person's hostility. Alternatively, not the guilt, but the condemning agency itself, may be projected onto other people, in the hope that they will look upon one's deeds more favorably than one's own conscience (a process that verges on ideas of reference).
3. Sharing a feeling of guilt, and thereby being less alone with it, is a motive force in both art and joke-telling; while it is also possible to "borrow" a sense of guilt from someone who is seen as in the wrong, and thereby assuage one's own.
4. Self-harm may be used as an alternative to compensating the object of one's transgression – perhaps in the form of not allowing oneself to enjoy opportunities open to one, or benefits due, as a result of uncompensated guilt feelings.

Behavioral responses

Guilt proneness is reliably associated with moral character. Similarly, feelings of guilt can prompt subsequent virtuous behavior. People who feel guilty may be more likely to exercise restraint, avoid self-indulgence, and exhibit less prejudice. Guilt appears to prompt reparatory behaviors to alleviate the negative emotions that it engenders. People appear to engage in targeted and specific reparatory behaviors toward the persons they wronged or offended.

Lack of guilt in psychopaths

Individuals high in psychopathy lack any true sense of guilt or remorse for harm they may have caused others. Instead, they rationalize their behavior, blame someone else, or deny it outright. People with psychopathy have a tendency to be harmful to themselves and to others. They have little ability to plan ahead for the future. An individual with psychopathy will never find themselves at fault because they will do whatever it takes to benefit themselves without reservation. A person that does not feel guilt or remorse would have no reason to find themselves at fault for something that they did with the intention of hurting another person. To a person high in psychopathy, their actions can always be rationalized to be the fault of another person. This is seen by psychologists as part of a lack of moral reasoning (in comparison with the majority of humans), an inability to evaluate situations in a moral framework, and an inability to develop emotional bonds with other people due to a lack of empathy.

Causes

Evolutionary theories

Some evolutionary psychologists theorize that guilt and shame helped maintain beneficial relationships, such as reciprocal altruism.

Литература

• Овај чланак или његов део изворно је преузет из Речника социјалног рада Ивана Видановића уз одобрење аутора.
• Adam Phillips, 'Guilt', in On Flirtation (1994) pp. 138–147
• Nina Coltart, 'Sin and the Super-ego', in Slouching Towards Bethlehem (1992)
• Tangney, June Price; Miller, Rowland S.; Flicker, Laura; Barlow, Deborah Hill (1996). „Are shame, guilt, and embarrassment distinct emotions?”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 70 (6): 1256—1269. PMID 8667166. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1256. 
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• Smiley, Marion (1. 1. 2011). Zalta, Edward N., ур. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University — преко Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. CS1 одржавање: Формат датума (веза)
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• Edwards, James (2018), „Theories of Criminal Law”, Ур.: Zalta, Edward N., The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 изд.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, Приступљено 2019-03-06 
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• Dickson, Eric. „On the (in) effectiveness of collective punishment: An experimental investigation” (PDF). NYU.edu. 
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• „Jozef & Wiktoria Ulma – The Righteous Among The Nations – Yad Vashem”. 
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• „The Nazi abuse of the Polish people continues – WWII Today”. ww2today.com. 19. 6. 2013. CS1 одржавање: Формат датума (веза)
• „Project InPosterum: Forgotten Survivors. Polish Christians Remember The Nazi Occupation<”. 
• Marek Jan Chodakiewicz (2004). Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947. Lexington Books. стр. 92, 105, 118, and 325. ISBN 0739104845. 
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Спољапње везе

• Tangney, June Price; Miller, Rowland S.; Flicker, Laura; Barlow, Deborah Hill (1996). „Are shame, guilt, and embarrassment distinct emotions?”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 70 (6): 1256—1269. PMID 8667166. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1256. 
• Guilt, unconscious sense of
• Michael Eigen, 'Guilt in an Age of Psychopathy'
• Guilt, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Stephen Mulhall, Miranda Fricker & Oliver Davies (In Our Time, 1 Nov. 2007)