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Џаинизам — разлика између измена

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[[Датотека:Jain Prateek Chihna.svg|мини|150п|Симбол ђаинизма]]
[[Датотека:Jain Prateek Chihna.svg|мини|150п|Симбол ђаинизма]]
{{рут}}
'''Ђаинизам''' или '''џаинизам''', традицинално познат као '''ђаина дарма''',{{sfn|Sangave|2006|p=15}} уз [[хиндуизам]] и [[сикизам]] је једна од три највеће [[религије Индије|индијске религије]]. Ђаинизам прописује животни пут ослобођен сваког насиља према било ком живом бићу. Уз то се наглашава духовна независност и једнакост између свих облика живота. Ђаинисти сматрају да су [[ненасиље]] и [[самоконтрола]] начини којима се постиже ослобођење — ђаина. Постоје две велике струје — дигамбару и светамбару. Обе проповедају строги [[аскеза|аскетизам]], радикално ослобођење од материјалног и [[вегетаријанство]].
'''Ђаинизам''' или '''џаинизам''', традицинално познат као '''ђаина дарма''',{{sfn|Sangave|2006|p=15}} уз [[хиндуизам]] и [[сикизам]] је једна од три највеће [[религије Индије|индијске религије]]. Ђаинизам прописује животни пут ослобођен сваког насиља према било ком живом бићу. Уз то се наглашава духовна независност и једнакост између свих облика живота. Ђаинисти сматрају да су [[ненасиље]] и [[самоконтрола]] начини којима се постиже ослобођење — ђаина. Постоје две велике струје — дигамбару и светамбару. Обе проповедају строги [[аскеза|аскетизам]], радикално ослобођење од материјалног и [[вегетаријанство]].


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Ђаинско учење описује да је стварност састављена од две категорије: [[ђива]] - то јест душа (коју у изворном облику карактеришу квалитети потпуног знања, енергије и блаженства); и не-ђива, то јест атоми (основни квалитети су им кретање и мировање) и етер, који заједно чине материјални свет, тамницу ђиве. Ђаинизам подучава духовном путу којим душа успева да побегне од утицаја [[Карма|карме]] (коју души привлаче дела насиља) и ослободи се из круга [[реинкарнација|препорађања]].<ref name="Kembridž-57-63"/>
Ђаинско учење описује да је стварност састављена од две категорије: [[ђива]] - то јест душа (коју у изворном облику карактеришу квалитети потпуног знања, енергије и блаженства); и не-ђива, то јест атоми (основни квалитети су им кретање и мировање) и етер, који заједно чине материјални свет, тамницу ђиве. Ђаинизам подучава духовном путу којим душа успева да побегне од утицаја [[Карма|карме]] (коју души привлаче дела насиља) и ослободи се из круга [[реинкарнација|препорађања]].<ref name="Kembridž-57-63"/>

=== Ненасиље (''ахимса'')===
{{anchor|ahimsa}}{{Main article|Ahimsa у Ђаинизму}}
[[Датотека:Ahinsa Parmo Dharm.jpg|thumb|Слика са поруком -{''Ahiṃsā Paramo [[Dharma (Jainism)|Dharma]]''}- ('non-violence is the highest virtue or religion')]]
[[Датотека:Ahimsa.svg|thumb|The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes [[Ahimsa in Jainism]]. The word in the middle is ''ahimsa''. The wheel represents the ''[[dharmachakra]]'', which stands for the resolve to halt the ''saṃsāra'' ('transmigration') through relentless pursuit of truth and non-violence.]]

The principle of ''ahimsa'' (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}} It believes that one must abandon all violent activity, and without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}} In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill any being, and "non-violence is one's highest religious duty".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}}{{sfn|Markham|Lohr|2009|p=71}}

Jain texts such as ''[[Acaranga Sutra]]'' and ''[[Tattvarthasutra]]'' state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable.{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160-162}} Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}}{{sfn|Markham|Lohr|2009|p=71}} Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action, but also in speech and in thought.{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160-162}} It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160-162}}{{sfn|Flügel|2002|pp=1266-1267}}}} Violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160-162}}

The idea of reverence for non-violence ([[ahimsa]]) is founded in Hindu and Buddhist canonical texts, and it may have origins in more ancient [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical]] Vedic thoughts.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}}<ref>John Arapura in K. R. Sundararajan and Bithika Mukerji Ed. (1997), Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1937-5}}; Chapter 20, pages 392–417</ref><ref>A Izawa (2008), Empathy for Pain in Vedic Ritual, Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies, Kokusai Bukkyōgaku Daigakuin Daigaku, Vol. 12, pages 78-81</ref> However, no other Indian religion has developed the non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as has Jainism.{{sfn|Sethia|2004|p=2}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=176–177}}{{sfn|Winternitz|1993|pp=408–409}}

The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars to "not be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately effects one's salvation and release from rebirths.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=88–89, 257–258}} Causing injury to any being in any form creates bad [[Karma in Jainism|karma]] which affects one's rebirth, future well being and suffering.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}}<ref>{{cite journal|title= The violence of non-violence: a study of some Jain responses to non-Jain religious practices |journal=The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies| volume=15| year= 1992| number = 1|author=Phyllis Granoff|url= https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8791/2698}}</ref>

Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the Ahimsa doctrine when one is faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=162-163}}{{sfn|Lorenzen|1978|pp=61–75}} According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadatta Suri wrote during a time of Muslim destruction of temples and persecution, that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=163}} However, such examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances, are relatively rare.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=162-163}}{{sfn|Olson|2014|pp=1–7}}}}

=== Многострана реалност (-{''anekāntavāda''}-)===
{{Main article|Анекантавада}}

The second main principle of Jainism is ''anekantavada'' or ''anekantatva''.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}} The word ''anekāntavāda'' is derived from ''anekānta'' ("not one ended, sided", "many-sidedness", or "manifoldness") and ''vada'' (doctrine, way).{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}}<ref name= "grimes34">Grimes, John (1996) p. 34; {{cite book|author=Philip C. Almond|title=Mystical Experience and Religious Doctrine: An Investigation of the Study of Mysticism in World Religions|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CBSn4dR087YC |year=1982|publisher= Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-90-279-3160-3|page=75}}</ref>

The ''anekantavada'' doctrine states that truth and reality is complex and always has multiple aspects. Reality can be experienced, but it is not possible to totally express it with language. Human attempts to communicate is ''Naya'', explained as "partial expression of the truth".{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} Language is not Truth, but a means and attempt to express Truth. From Truth, according to Mahavira, language returns and not the other way around.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}<ref name=iepmahav/> One can experience the truth of a taste, but cannot fully express that taste through language. Any attempts to express the experience is ''syāt'', or valid "in some respect" but it still remains a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".<ref name=iepmahav>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/jain/ Jain philosophy], IEP, Mark Owen Webb, Texas Tech University</ref> In the same way, spiritual truths are complex, they have multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality, yet through effort and appropriate karma they can be experienced.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}

The ''anekantavada'' premise of the Jains is ancient, as evidenced by its mention in Buddhist texts such as the ''Samaññaphala Sutta''. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahavira's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (''syāt'').{{sfn|Matilal|1990|pp=301–305}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=205–218}} These texts identify ''anekantavada'' doctrine to be one of the key differences between the teachings of the Mahavira and those of the Buddha. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahavira, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is" and "it is not", with "perhaps" qualification and with reconciliation to understand the Absolute Reality.{{sfn|Matilal|1998|pp=128–135}} ''Syādvāda'' (predication [[logic]]) and ''nayavāda'' (perspective [[epistemology]]) of Jainism expand on the concept of ''anekāntavāda''. ''Syādvāda'' recommends the expression of ''anekānta'' by prefixing the epithet ''syād'' to every phrase or expression describing the "permanent being".{{sfn|Koller|2000|pp=400–407}}{{sfn|Sangave|2006|p=48-51}} There is no creator God in Jainism; existence has neither beginning nor end, and the permanent being is conceptualized as ''jiva'' ('soul') and ''ajiva'' ('matter') within a dualistic ''anekantavada'' framework.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=90–99, 104–105, 229–233}}

In contemporary times, according to Paul Dundas, the ''anekantavada'' doctrine has been interpreted by many Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". This is problematic and a misreading of Jain historical texts and Mahavira's teachings, states Dundas.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=232–234}} The "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahavira is a doctrine about the nature of [[Absolute (philosophy)|Absolute Reality]] and human existence, and it is sometimes called "non-absolutism" doctrine.{{sfn|Sethia|2004|pp=86-91}} However, it is not a doctrine about tolerating or condoning activities such as sacrificing or killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=232–234}} The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" or "that is just one perspective" about them.{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=98–106}} Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism, according to Dundas, but Jainism was highly critical of the knowledge systems and ideologies of its rivals, and vice versa.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=233}}


== Галерија ==
== Галерија ==
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<gallery widths="250px" heights="180px">
Слика:Ranakpur1.jpg|индијски храм Ранкпур
Слика:Ranakpur1.jpg|индијски храм Ранкпур
Слика:Ranakpur-temple.jpg|индијски храм Ранкпур
Слика:Ranakpur-temple.jpg|индијски храм Ранкпур
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Слика:Westindischer Maler von 1439 001.jpg|уметност и писмо
Слика:Westindischer Maler von 1439 001.jpg|уметност и писмо
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</gallery>

== Види још ==
* [[Ђаинистичка застава]]


== Референце ==
== Референце ==
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== Литература ==
== Литература ==
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{{refend}}
{{refend}}


== Види још ==
* [[Ђаинистичка застава]]


== Спољашње везе ==
== Спољашње везе ==
{{Commonscat-inline|Jainism}}
{{Commonscat-inline|Jainism}}
* -{[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism "Jainism"]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' Online.}-
* {{DMOZ|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Jainism/}}


{{светоназор|примери}}
{{светоназор|примери}}

Верзија на датум 12. фебруар 2018. у 04:01

Симбол ђаинизма

Ђаинизам или џаинизам, традицинално познат као ђаина дарма,[1] уз хиндуизам и сикизам је једна од три највеће индијске религије. Ђаинизам прописује животни пут ослобођен сваког насиља према било ком живом бићу. Уз то се наглашава духовна независност и једнакост између свих облика живота. Ђаинисти сматрају да су ненасиље и самоконтрола начини којима се постиже ослобођење — ђаина. Постоје две велике струје — дигамбару и светамбару. Обе проповедају строги аскетизам, радикално ослобођење од материјалног и вегетаријанство.

Ђаинизам је једна од најстаријих религија света.[2] Ђаинизам је настао у 8. или 7. веку п. н. е у долини реке Ганг, у подручју које отприлике покрива данашња индијска држава Бихар.[3] Верници своју историју рачунају кроз смењивање двадесет и четири првобитна заговорника њихове вере, а које називаји тиртанкарама (tirthankara). Последњи од њих је Махавира, у чијој се ери свет тренутно налази. Дуги низ година ђаинизам је био државна религија индијских држава и свих људи Индијског потконтинента. Од осмог века нове ере број верника је драстично опао, а већинско становништво практикује хиндуизам или ислам.[4]

Данас, ђаинисти су верска мањима у Индији, са 4,2 милиона верника. Мале али значајне мањине односно имигрантске заједнице налазе се у Белгији, Канади, Хонгконгу, Јапану, Сингапуру и Сједињеним Америчким Државама.[5] Ђаинисти су најписменија друштвена заједница у Индији (са чак 94,1% писмених припадника),[6] а њихови списи спадају у најстарије у држави.[7] Махатма Ганди, познат по строгом придржавању ђаинистичке филозофије ненасиља, био је присталица ове религије.

Назив

Реч ђаинизам изведена је од санскритског глагола ђаина (позападњачено као ђаин - jin) у значењу "победник", што је титула за ђаинске мудраце.[3] Ова игра речи односи се на вечну борбу страсти и телесних ужитака са једне и јаке воље и других позитивних вредности коју верници треба да поседују како би достигли ђаину са друге стране. Исти назив носе све особе које су у овој верској борби успешно победиле.

Победа ових учитеља над страстима и обманама чула омогућила им је да постигну просветљење, а тиме ослобађање из круга препорађања, које се описује као стање чистог блаженства, знања и енергије. Пошто током свог живота сваки од ових ђина оснива заједницу монаха, монахиња и следбеника, фигуративно названих "преласком" (санскритски tirtha) преко бујице препорађања, сваки од њих, такође, носи заједнички назив tirthankara, "градитељ прелаза".[3]

Историјат

Статуа Махавире

Иако ђаинизам сматра да у сваком светском циклусу постоји низ од 24 "градитеља прелаза", при чему се циклус замишља као непрекидно окретање точка, научници се слажу да су једино последња два члана тог низа, Паршва и Махавира, историјске личности. Обојица су живела у времену великих друштвено-политичких промена и настајања разних религијских праваца у северној Индији. Древни пасторални начин живота, организован око индоаријског култа жртве, а описан и тумачен у текстовима који се заједнички називају Веде (око 1200-800. пре н. е.), као и ауторитет браманске свештеничке касте, полако су били замењивани урбанизацијом и комплексним државним системом, на чијем челу се налазио краљ, поседник до тада незабележене моћи. Аскетски начин живота какав су водили Паршва и Махавира био је уобичајени одговор на друштвену и интелектуалну нестабилност тога доба.[3]

Не постоје записи из времена Паршве, те смо слику о њему принудени да конструишемо на основу каснијих извора. Највероватније да је живео у 8. или 7. веку пре наше ере. Приказиван је као принц, слично свим другим тиртанкарама, који су још у пуној снази одбацили овај свет и, живећи као лутајуће аскете достизали просветљење. Чини се да је његово учење укључивало космологију и морални кодекс који се заснивао на ненасиљу, нелагању, неузимању било чега што није дато и одустајању од сваког поседа. Овај морални кодекс, уз додатак уздржавања од секса, представља пет великих завета које је Махавира препоручивао свим ђаинским аскетама и он се следи све до данас.[3]

Махавира се обично схвата као утемељитељ ђаинизма, но има више основа да га сматрамо проширитељем Паршвиног учења. Традиционално се његов живот смешта између 599. и 527. године пре наше ере, иако ти датуми могу бити и нешто каснији.[3] Махавирино основно учење изведено је из његовог схватања да је сва патња у овом свету изазвана насиљем над душом, која живи у телесном облику на свим нивоима егзистенције, те да то спутава унутрашњи духовни потенцијал сваког појединог бића. Начин да се умањи ово насиље и достигне избављење од препорађања јесте у смиривању телесних чула и уздржавању од деловања, колико год је то могуће, углавном удаљавањем од заједнице и њених материјалних брига. Ђаинско учење истиче значај ненасиља (ахимса) за сва бића и значај аскетизма. Вегетаријанизам је кроз читаву ђаинску историју исто тако био врло важан елемент.[3]

Доктрина

Ђаинизам је религија која у своје средиште ставља људска бића и њихове проблеме. Он учи да је универзум вечан и да нема свог творца. Иако богови постоје у читавом низу небеса смештених изнад света људи, они немају утицаја на њега и сами ће једнога дана престати да буду богови, те се поново родити.[3]

Ђаинско учење описује да је стварност састављена од две категорије: ђива - то јест душа (коју у изворном облику карактеришу квалитети потпуног знања, енергије и блаженства); и не-ђива, то јест атоми (основни квалитети су им кретање и мировање) и етер, који заједно чине материјални свет, тамницу ђиве. Ђаинизам подучава духовном путу којим душа успева да побегне од утицаја карме (коју души привлаче дела насиља) и ослободи се из круга препорађања.[3]

Ненасиље (ахимса)

Слика са поруком Ahiṃsā Paramo Dharma ('non-violence is the highest virtue or religion')
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism. The word in the middle is ahimsa. The wheel represents the dharmachakra, which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsāra ('transmigration') through relentless pursuit of truth and non-violence.

The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.[8] It believes that one must abandon all violent activity, and without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.[8] In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill any being, and "non-violence is one's highest religious duty".[8][9]

Jain texts such as Acaranga Sutra and Tattvarthasutra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable.[10][11] Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.[10][9] Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action, but also in speech and in thought.[10][11] It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".[11][12]}} Violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.[11]

The idea of reverence for non-violence (ahimsa) is founded in Hindu and Buddhist canonical texts, and it may have origins in more ancient Brahmanical Vedic thoughts.[8][13][14] However, no other Indian religion has developed the non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as has Jainism.[15][16][17]

The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars to "not be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately effects one's salvation and release from rebirths.[18] Causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well being and suffering.[19][20]

Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the Ahimsa doctrine when one is faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns.[21][22] According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadatta Suri wrote during a time of Muslim destruction of temples and persecution, that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".[23] However, such examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances, are relatively rare.[21][24]}}

Многострана реалност (anekāntavāda)

The second main principle of Jainism is anekantavada or anekantatva.[25][26] The word anekāntavāda is derived from anekānta ("not one ended, sided", "many-sidedness", or "manifoldness") and vada (doctrine, way).[25][26][27]

The anekantavada doctrine states that truth and reality is complex and always has multiple aspects. Reality can be experienced, but it is not possible to totally express it with language. Human attempts to communicate is Naya, explained as "partial expression of the truth".[25] Language is not Truth, but a means and attempt to express Truth. From Truth, according to Mahavira, language returns and not the other way around.[25][28] One can experience the truth of a taste, but cannot fully express that taste through language. Any attempts to express the experience is syāt, or valid "in some respect" but it still remains a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".[28] In the same way, spiritual truths are complex, they have multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality, yet through effort and appropriate karma they can be experienced.[25]

The anekantavada premise of the Jains is ancient, as evidenced by its mention in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahavira's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt).[29][30] These texts identify anekantavada doctrine to be one of the key differences between the teachings of the Mahavira and those of the Buddha. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahavira, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is" and "it is not", with "perhaps" qualification and with reconciliation to understand the Absolute Reality.[31] Syādvāda (predication logic) and nayavāda (perspective epistemology) of Jainism expand on the concept of anekāntavāda. Syādvāda recommends the expression of anekānta by prefixing the epithet syād to every phrase or expression describing the "permanent being".[32][33] There is no creator God in Jainism; existence has neither beginning nor end, and the permanent being is conceptualized as jiva ('soul') and ajiva ('matter') within a dualistic anekantavada framework.[34]

In contemporary times, according to Paul Dundas, the anekantavada doctrine has been interpreted by many Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". This is problematic and a misreading of Jain historical texts and Mahavira's teachings, states Dundas.[35] The "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahavira is a doctrine about the nature of Absolute Reality and human existence, and it is sometimes called "non-absolutism" doctrine.[36] However, it is not a doctrine about tolerating or condoning activities such as sacrificing or killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".[35] The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" or "that is just one perspective" about them.[37] Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism, according to Dundas, but Jainism was highly critical of the knowledge systems and ideologies of its rivals, and vice versa.[38]

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Референце

  1. ^ Sangave 2006, стр. 15.
  2. ^ Flügel 2012, стр. 975.
  3. ^ а б в г д ђ е ж з Kembridžova ilustrovana istorija religije (pp. 57-63), Stylos, Novi Sad. 2006. ISBN 86-7473-281-X.
  4. ^ Glasenapp 1999, стр. 74–75.
  5. ^ Glasenapp 1999, стр. 271.
  6. ^ Census 2001 Data 
  7. ^ Dundas 2002, стр. 83.
  8. ^ а б в г Dundas 2002, стр. 160.
  9. ^ а б Markham & Lohr 2009, стр. 71.
  10. ^ а б в Price 2010, стр. 90.
  11. ^ а б в г Dundas 2002, стр. 160–162.
  12. ^ Flügel 2002, стр. 1266–1267.
  13. ^ John Arapura in K. R. Sundararajan and Bithika Mukerji Ed. (1997), Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern, ISBN 978-81-208-1937-5; Chapter 20, pages 392–417
  14. ^ A Izawa (2008), Empathy for Pain in Vedic Ritual, Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies, Kokusai Bukkyōgaku Daigakuin Daigaku, Vol. 12, pages 78-81
  15. ^ Sethia 2004, стр. 2.
  16. ^ Dundas 2002, стр. 176–177.
  17. ^ Winternitz 1993, стр. 408–409.
  18. ^ Dundas 2002, стр. 88–89, 257–258.
  19. ^ Taylor 2008, стр. 892–894.
  20. ^ Phyllis Granoff (1992). „The violence of non-violence: a study of some Jain responses to non-Jain religious practices”. The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. 15 (1). 
  21. ^ а б Dundas 2002, стр. 162–163.
  22. ^ Lorenzen 1978, стр. 61–75.
  23. ^ Dundas 2002, стр. 163.
  24. ^ Olson 2014, стр. 1–7.
  25. ^ а б в г д Charitrapragya 2004, стр. 75–79.
  26. ^ а б Dundas 2002, стр. 229–231.
  27. ^ Grimes, John (1996) p. 34; Philip C. Almond (1982). Mystical Experience and Religious Doctrine: An Investigation of the Study of Mysticism in World Religions. Walter de Gruyter. стр. 75. ISBN 978-90-279-3160-3. 
  28. ^ а б Jain philosophy, IEP, Mark Owen Webb, Texas Tech University
  29. ^ Matilal 1990, стр. 301–305.
  30. ^ Balcerowicz 2015, стр. 205–218.
  31. ^ Matilal 1998, стр. 128–135.
  32. ^ Koller 2000, стр. 400–407.
  33. ^ Sangave 2006, стр. 48-51.
  34. ^ Dundas 2002, стр. 90–99, 104–105, 229–233.
  35. ^ а б Dundas 2002, стр. 232–234.
  36. ^ Sethia 2004, стр. 86–91.
  37. ^ Long 2009, стр. 98–106.
  38. ^ Dundas 2002, стр. 233.

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